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Latin Grammar 



FOUNDED ON COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR 



BY 



J. H. ALLEN and J. B. GREENOUGH 



REVISED EDITION 



BOSTON 

GINN AND HEATH 

1879 






Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1877, by 

J. H. ALLEN AND J. B. GREENOUGH, 

in the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 



Gfft 
Judge and Mrs. f.R.Hitt 
Dec. 11, 1936 



University Press: John Wilson & Son, 
Cambridge. 



PREFACE 

TO THE REVISED EDITION. 



The editors have taken advantage of the re-casting of the 
plates to make some improvements in the present edition, 
which have grown upon their hands, until in fact a thorough 
revision of the book has been made. 

The principal changes are the following: i. The matter 
of each part has been cast in chapters, with sub-divisions by 
numbered paragraphs, the former sections being indicated in 
the margin. 2. A very considerable expansion has been 
given to several portions, especially to those on Phonetic 
Changes and the Formation of Words ; inflectional forms 
have been more fully exhibited, and sections have been added 
on the syntax of Pronouns and Particles. 3. Strictly philo- 
logical matter, not intended for class use, has been put in the 
form of marginal notes. 4. The several topics of the Syntax 
are introduced by brief prefatory notes, suggesting what we 
consider to be the true theory of the constructions : these are 
not designed for class use, and are not included in the num- 
bered sections. 5. Some important additions and illustrations 
have been given in the Prosody. The substance of the book 
remains as before. The form of expression, however, has 
been carefully revised ; and a few sections have been trans- 
ferred to a different connection, such changes being noted in 
the margin. 



iv Preface. 

The proof-sheets have been submitted to several experi- 
enced teachers, who have generously aided us by their 
criticism, and have contributed many valuable practicable 
suggestions. The editors have pleasure in acknowledging also 
their special indebtedness to Professor Caskie Harrison, of 
the University of the South, Sewanee, Tennessee, whose 
correspondence has made a very full running commentary ex- 
tending over the greater portion of the book, including all the 
Syntax, with copious discussion of numerous incidental topics. 
His notes have been of the greatest service to them ; have 
sometimes modified their views and constantly supplemented 
them, have urged important points upon their attention, and 
have not seldom suggested valuable improvements through 
the very antagonism of opposing doctrine. Material less easy 
to specify in detail, but not less valuable or welcome, has 
been received from Professor M. W. Humphreys, of Nash- 
ville, from the Principals of the academies at Andover, 
Exeter, and Quincy, and from others, to whom cordial thanks 
are due for the interest they have testified in the work. 

Cambridge, September 25, 1877. 



NOTE. 



For the convenience of those who may wish to follow out 
special lines of study in general or comparative grammar, or to 
consult original sources on the history and development of the 
Latin, a list of works including the best and most recent author- 
ities is here subjoined : — 

Bopp : Vergleichende Grammatik des Sanskrit, etc. [Indo-European lan- 
guages]. 4 vols. 3d Ed. Berlin, 1868-70. 

The original standard work on Comparative Forms. Later researches have cor- 
rected some erroneous details. English translation (poor), London : 1862. The 
best form is a French translation, with Notes and Introductions by Michel Break 
Paris: 1866. 

Corssen : Aussprache, Vokalismus und Betonung der Lateinischen Sprache, 

2 vols. 2d ed. Leipzig, 1868. 

The greatest work on Latin alone, treating the language in reference to its own 
individual development, particularly as to the sounds {Lautlehre). In the com- 
parative portion, it needs the correction of other investigators. 

Curtius, G. : Grundzuge der Griechischen Etymologie. 3d Ed. Leipsic : 

1869. 

Treats of Latin only by comparison ; but is one of the most valuable works on 
the general subject. 

Erlauterungen zu meiner Griechischen Schul-grammatik. 2d Ed. 

Prag. 1870. English translation (" Elucidations "), London : 1870. 

Notes giving in connection with the Greek Grammar the simplest view of the 
doctrine of forms. 



■ Das Griechische Verbum. 



Delbruck : Das Conjunct™ und Optativ, im Sanskrit und Griechischen. 

Halle : 187 1. 

Origin of the Moods treated scientifically ; should be read in connection with a 
notice in N. A. Review, Oct. 1871, and "Analysis of the Latin Subjunctive," by 
J. B. Greenough, Cambridge, 1870. 



— Ablativ,Localis, Instrtcmentalis im indischen, etc. Berlin : 1867. 

Origin of the various Ablative constructions. 

Ellis, A. J. : Practical Hints on the Quantitative Pronunciation of Latin. 
London (MacMillan) : 1874. 

Ferrar : Comparative Grammar of Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin. London: 
1869. Vol. I., including as far as Pronouns. The work was left un- 
finished at the author's death. 
A convenient hand-book in English. 

Fick : Vergleichendes Worterbuch der Indo- Germanischen Sprachen. Got- 

tingen : 1870. 

A Dictionary of Roots and Words supposed to have existed in the Indo- 
European tongue, with the corresponding words and derivatives in the various Ian- 



vi Note. 



guages. It can be used without a knowledge of German. No such book, however, 
is safe to use without careful study of the laws of consonant and vowel changes. 

Hadley, James : Essays, Philological and Critical. New York (Holt & 
Williams) : 1873. 

Hoffman : Die Construction der Latcinischen Zeitpartikeln. Vienna •• 
i860 (Pamphlet). 

Kuhn : See Zeitschrift. 

Lubbert: Die Syntax von Quoin. Breslau : 1870. 

Neue : For menlehre der Latei?iischen Spr ache. 2d Ed. Stuttgart: 1866. 
Storehouse of all Latin forms, 1200 pages, containing the result of late text- 
ual criticism. The standard work. 

Papillon : A Manual of Comparative Philology, as applied to the Illustra- 
tion of Greek and Latin Inflections. Oxford : 1876. 
Behind the time, but a convenient synopsis of the doctrine of Forms. 

Peile : Latin and Greek Etymology. 2d Ed. Macmillan : London and 
Cambridge, 1872. 

— Philology (pp. 164). New York (Appleton): 1877. 

One of the series of the " Literature Primers " edited by J R. Green. A very 
useful manual to those desiring a general acquaintance with the subject. 

Rob Y : A Grammar of the Latin Language, from Plautus to Suetonius. 

Macmillan: London and New York : Vol. I. 187 1 ; Vol. II. 1873. 

A thorough treatment of Latin Etymology on the principles of comparative 
grammar. Some errors have been pointed out in the N. A. Review, Jan. 1872. 

Schleicher: Compendium der Vergleichenden Grammatik der Indo-Ger- 
manischen Sprachen. 2d Ed. Weimar, 1866. 

Schweizer-Sidler : Elementar- tend Formenlehre der Latcinischen 

Spr ache, fiir Schulen. Halle: 1869. 

The best summary of the results of comparative grammar as applied to Latin 
in short compass (137 pages). 

Vanicek : Etymologisches Worterbuch der Latcinischen Sprache. Leipzig : 

1874. 

Suggestive, but to be used with caution. 

Westphal : Metrik der Griechen. 2d Ed. 1867. 2 vols. 

The great authority on the metrical systems of the ancients, with full literary and 
musical illustration. A convenient summary, with some modifications, will be found 
in Schmidt's Rhythmik und Metrik, now in course of translation by Prof. J. W. 
White. 

Williams : A Practical Grammar of the Sanskrit Language. 3d Ed. 

Oxford : 1864. 

A very convenient Sanskrit grammar, without some knowledge of which it is 
difficult to pursue the study of comparative grammar to advantage. 

Zeitschrift fiir vergleichende Sprachforschung. Edited bv Dr. A. Kuhn. 

Vols. I. to XXV. Berlin, 1S51-1S76, and still continued. 

The best essays on all disputed points of comparative Philology. Indispensable 
to correct theories of individual investigators. Each volume has an index ; and 
there is also a general index to the first ten volumes. 



CONTENTS. 



PART I. — ETYMOLOGY. 

PAGE 

Chapter I. — Letters and Sounds 1-8 

Alphabet; Classification, Phonetic Changes 1-6 

Pronunciation ; Quantity and Accent j, 8 

Chapter II. — Words and their Forms 9-13 

Inflection; Root and Stem 9 

The Parts of Speech 10 

Gender; Number and Case 11 

Chapter III. — Declension of Nouns ....... 14-36 

General Rules of Declension 14 

First Declension 15 

Second Declension 16 

Third Declension: Mute Stems . . . ... . . . 19 

Liquid Stems 20 

Vowel Stems 21 

Greek Forms 25 

Rules of Gender 26 

Fourth Declension 30 

Fifth Declension 32 

Defective and Variable Nouns 33 

Proper Names 36 

Chapter IV. — Adjectives 37-49 

First and Second Declensions 37 

Third Declension 39 

Comparison 43 

Numerals 46 

Chapter V. — Pronoitns 50-57 

Personal, Reflexive, Demonstrative 50 

Relative, Interrogative, Indefinite 54 

Correlatives (Pronouns and Adverbs) 56 



viii Contents. 



PAGE 



Chapter VI. — Verbs 58-96 

Structure : Voice, Mood, Tense 58 

Personal Endings 63 

Forms : Verb-Endings 65 

Esse and its Compounds 67 

Regular Verb : The Three Stems 70 

The Four Conjugations 71 

Formation of the Stems 72 

First Conjugation y6 

Second Conjugation 80 

Third Conjugation 82 

Fourth Conjugation 86 

Deponent Verbs 88 

Irregular Verbs . 90 

Defective Verbs 93 

Impersonal Verbs 95 

Chapter VII. — Particles 97-106 

Adverbs 97 

Prepositions 100 

Conjunctions 103 

Chapter VIII. — Formation of Words 1 07-1 16 

Roots and Stems ; Primary Suffixes 107 

Significant Endings : Nouns, Adjectives 109 

Derivation of Verbs 113 

Compound Words 115 

PART II. — SYNTAX. 

Introductory Note 117 

Chapter I. — The Sentence . 1 19-144 

Definitions : Subject and Predicate 119 

Agreement : the Four Concords 122 

Nouns: Apposition; Predicate Agreement .... 123 

Adjectives: Rule of Agreement 124 

Special Uses 126 

Pronouns : Personal and Demonstrative 129 

Reflexive 131 

Possessive 132 

Relative 133 

Indefinite 136 



Contents. ix 



PAGE 



Verbs : Subject-Nominative 138 

Particles : Adverbs, Conjunctions, Negative . . . . 140 

Questions 142 

Chapter II. — Construction of Cases 145-183 

Introductory Note 145 

Genitive : With Nouns, Subjective 146 

Partitive 148 

Objective 150 

With Adjectives 151 

With Verbs of Accusing, &c; of Memory . 152 

Verbs of Feeling ; Impersonals .... 153 

Dative: Indirect Object 154 

With Intransitives 156 

With Compounds 158 

Of Possession ; of Agency 160 

Of Service ; of Fitness and Nearness . . . 161 

Of Reference 162 

Accusative : Direct Object 164 

Cognate Accusative ; Two Accusatives . . . . 165 

Idiomatic and Special Uses . 166 

Vocative . 167 

Ablative : its Several Uses - . 167 

1. Of Separation and Privation 168 

Source, Material, Cause 170 

Of Agency; of Comparison ..... 171, 172 

2. Of Instrument, Means, Accompaniment . . . 173 

Of Quality, Price, Specification. . . . 174, 175 

3. Locative: Special Uses 175 

Ablative Absolute 176 

Time and Place - 177 

Use of Prepositions 181 

Chapter III. — Syntax of the Verb 184 

Note on the Moods 184 

Moods : Indicative 185 

Subjunctive : General Use 186 

, 9 Hortatory 187 

„ Optative 188 

„ Dubitative 189 

Imperative , , . , . 190 

Infinitive 191 



x Contents. 

PAGE 

Tenses : Introductory Note 194 

Tenses of Continued Action 195 

Tenses of Completed Action 198 

Sequence of Tenses 200 

Tenses of the Infinitive 202 

Participles : Distinctions of Tense 204 

Adjective and Predicate Use .... 205 

Future Participle ; Gerundive .... 207 

Gerund and Gerundive 209 

Supines . . - 212 

Chapter IV. — Conditional Sentences 214-226 

Introductory Note 214 

Protasis and Apodosis, 215 ; Classification of Forms . 216 

Simple Conditions ; Future Conditions 217 

Conditions Contrary to Fact 219 

General Conditions 221 

Implied Conditions 222 

Use of Conditional Particles 224 

Chapter V. — Dependent Constructions 227-257 

Relative Clauses : Introductory Note . . . . . 227 

Clauses of Protasis 227 

Clauses of Purpose 228 

Clauses of Result 230 

Clauses of Characteristic 332 

Cause or Reason 233 

Relations of Time 234 

Substantive Clauses : Introductory Note .... 238 

Infinitive Clauses 239 

Clauses with ut : Purpose ........ 240 

Result 242 

Clauses with quod 244 

Indirect Questions 245 

Indirect Discourse : Introductory Note 247 

Narrative : Main Clause 248 

Conditions, Questions, Commands 250 

Intermediate Clauses 251 

Synopsis of Constructions 254 

General Rules of Syntax 256 



Contents. xi 



PAGE 



Chapter VI. — Arrangement 258-262 

Normal Order 258 

Emphasis 259 

Special Rules 260 

Structure of the Period 261 

PART III. — PROSODY. 

Chapter I. — Quantity 263-270 

Introductory Note 263 

General Rules of Quantity 264 

Quantity of Final Syllables 265 

Quantity of Penultimates 267 

Chapter II. — Rhythm 271-275 

Measures of Rhythm : Feet 272 

The Musical Accent 274 

Chapter III. — Versification 276-291 

The Verse 276 

Dactylic Verse : Hexa?neter . . 277 

Elegiac Stanza 279 

Iambic Verse : Trimeter . . 280 

Trochaic Verse 282 

Mixed Measures 283 

Logacedic Verse 284 

Metres of Horace 287 

Miscellaneous 291 

Early Prosody 292 

Miscellaneous : Reckoning of Time ....... 294 

Measures of Value 296 

Abbreviations 297 

Glossary of Terms 298 

Appendix: Latin and Kindred Tongues 3 01 

Principal Roman Writers 3°6 

Index 3°7 



PART FIRST. 



FORMS OF WORDS (ETYMOLOGY). 



Chapter I. — Letters and Sounds. 

Alphabet. 

Note. — The Latin Alphabet, as usually written, is the same 
as the English, except that it has no W. It consists, strictly, of 
but twenty-three letters, J and V being used as the consonant 
forms of I and U (see 4, below 1 ). Cicero (N. D. ii. 37) reckons 
only twenty-one letters; Y and Z being added after his time, in 
words derived from the Greek. 

Classification of the Letters. 

l. The Vowels {litterce vocales) are a, e, i, o, u, y. 
The combinations ae (m), au, ei, eu, oe (ce), ui, are 
called Diphthongs. In early Latin, ai, 01, and ou are 
also found as diphthongs. 

Note. — The primitive vowel-sound may be assumed to be A, as in father. 
Starting with this, and gradually contracting the palate, we form in succession the 
sound of E (a) and I (ee\ leading to the semi-vowel J (y). By contracting the 
lips, we in like manner form the sound of o and u (00), leading to the semi- 
vowel v (w). By contracting both palate and lips, we form the French sound 
of u, — in Greek v, and in Latin y. This, which is called the Vowel-Scale, 
I is of great service in tracing the modifications of vowel-sounds. It may be 
represented thus : — 

Open A 

Medial E O 

Close I Y U 

The Aspirate (or breathing) h follows in inflection the rule of palatals ; and 
was originally, in many words, a harsh guttural (kh), like the Greek x or the 
Spanish j. Its later sound was very slight, and in most languages derived 
from Latin has quite disappeared. Sometimes, as in aheneus (=aeneus), it 
seems to be used by modern copyists only to separate two vowels. 



1 The references are to the numbered paragraphs. 



§1 



1. a 



Etymology : Letters and Sounds. 



2. Consonants {litterce consonantes) are classified 
according to the organ of speech with which they are 
spoken, as Labial {Up), Lingual {tongue), or Palatal 
{palate) ; and according to the mode of utterance, as 
Surd, Sonant, or Nasal : thus — 



{Labial 
Lingual 
Palatal 



SONANT. 


NASAL. 


B 


M 


D 


N 


G 


N adulterinum 



SURD. 
P 

T 
C,K,Q 

3. The letters B, c, D, G, K, p, Q, t (surds and sonants), are 
called Mutes ; L, m, n, R, are called Liquids ; F, ph, th, h, s 
(surd), and v, z (sonant), are Fricatives (Spirants), s and z being 
also Sibilants ; x (cs) and z (ds or sd) are Double Consonants. 

4. The letters i (j) and u (v) may be used before a vowel 
in the same syllable, as in iuuenis (j?tvenis), and are then 
consonants (sometimes called semi-vowels). The u in quis, 
anguzs, sitavis, &c, forms a compound sound with the preceding 
letter, and is strictly neither vowel nor consonant. 

5. Vowels and Consonants are not separated by any sharp line 
from each other, but form a continuous scale from the most open 
vowel to the closest mute, as in the following Table. 2 The ten- 
dency of phonetic change has been from the extremes of open 
vowel and close mute towards the fricatives and semi-vowels in 
the middle. 

A {ah) 
a {hat) a {aw) 
e (eh) o 

u (but) u (oo) 



Sonants 



i (ee) 
y (Eng.) 



v n g 



Surd, h 

Sonant. 

Surd. 

Sonant. 

Sonant. 

Surd. 

PALATAL. 



kh 

gh 



g 
k 



r,l 

n 
s 

z 

th 

dh 

d 

t 

LINGUAL. 



Vowels. 



sv Semivowels- 

m Nasals. 
f ) Fricatives 
v ( [Spirants). 
ph | Aspirates 
bh j (lost in Latin). 

> Mutes. 

LABIAL. 



n 

o 

y, 

o 

> 

7, 



1 Before a Palatal, as in ink, thing. 2 Adapted from Professor W. D. 

Whitney's Oriental and Linguistic Studies, 2d Series, page 286. 



Early Forms ; Phonetic Changes. 3 

Early Forms. 

6. In early use, c was not distinguished in form or sound 
from G. After the distinction was made, C was still used con- 
ventionally, as the initial of names (Caius, Cnaeus) beginning 
properly with G. It came, in later use, to take the place of 
K, which was retained only in abbreviations, or as the initial 
letter of a few words, as Kalendae, Karthago, in which it 
precedes A. 

7. Till after the age of Augustus, u was never in good use 
preceded in the same syllable by u or v ; but o was written 
where later custom allows u : as in volt, servos ; quom (for cum) 
and quor (for cur), or c was regularly used for qu in such words 
as cum (for quum), ecus (for equus), relicus (for reliquus), locun- 
tur (for loquuntur), and the like ; also in cotidie (for quotidie), 
and a few other words. 

8. At the end of a few words, — as sed, apud, illud, — t was 
anciently written instead of d. In words ending in -s, final s was 
often elided (sometimes with further change), as in qualist 
(qualis est), plenu 1 fidei (Cat. Maj. § 1). 

Phonetic Changes. 

9. Letters are often changed according to general 
laws of inflection and derivation ; or have been altered 
through long use, securing an easier utterance {phonetic 
decay, euphonic change). Thus, 

10. Vowels are changed by — 

a. Vowel-increase : as, emo, emij lego, legi ; dgo, egi; pendo, 
p07idus ; so no, perso?ia; perfidus, fidus, foedus; due-is, dilco 
(compare tell, told ; fell, fall ; bind, band, bound). 

b. Substitution, generally following the vowel-scale (see page 1) 
in the direction from A to 1 on one side, or to u on the other, but 
sometimes across from o to E : as, factum, confectu7n j agmen, 
ag minis ; capio, incipio ; cano, concino j lego, colligo; salio, ex- 
sulto j pello, pulsumj servos, servus ; ebon's, ebur; vorto, verto. 

c. Contraction or omission : as, obit (obiit), cogo (co-dgo), nil 
{nihil), debeo (de-habeo), coetus (coitus); — audacter (audaciter) ; 
jurgium (jurigium), disciplina {discipulind). 

d. Suppression of the semi-vowel (sometimes with contrac- 
tion) : as, obicit {objicit), cunctus (co-junctus, i. e. conjunctus), 
contio {conventio), rursus (reversus), amarat (amaverat). 



4 Etymology : Letters ci7id Sotmds. 

11. Consonant changes are made by — 

a. Substitution : as of r for s between two vowels, and 
before M or n : as, in eram (root es), generis {genus), maereo 
{maeslus), dirimo {dis-emo), diribeo {dis-habeo), veternus {velus- 
nus) ; — or s for d or T, a smoother combination: as, casus 
(cad-tus), cessum (ced-tum), mansus (inan-tus), passus (pat-tus), 
missus (mit-tus), equester iequet-ter). 

b. Omission: examen {exagmen), caementum {caed-mentu??i), 
semestris {ses-mestris) , luna {luc-na), deni (dcc-ni), hoc (abl. for 
hod-ce), autumnus {auctumnus : root avg), ful men (fulg-men), 
pergo {per-rego), lis {stlis), cor {cord-), lac {lad-), pes (peds). 

c. Insertion : as, sumo, sump si, sumptiwi {sum-si, sum- turn) ; 
hiems, hie?;?ps (a transition sound, as in Thompson). 

d. Transposition : as, ster?io, stravi {sterui) ; sperno, sprevi ; 
cerno, crevi ; 7nisceo, mixtus (misc-tus). 

e. Dissimilation (to avoid repetition of a sound) : as, parilia 
(from Pales) ; meridies (medi-dies). 

f. Assimilation — 

1. Partial : as, scriptus (scrib-tus), actus (ag-tus), auxi {aug-si\ 
i?7ipero {in-pero), contero {com-tero), segmentum (sec-mentum), 
quantus (qua?n-tus). 

2. Complete : as, cessi {ced-si), siwimus {sub-mus), sella 
(sed-la), puella (puer{u)la), pressi {pr em-si). 

3. Especially of the final consonant of the preposition in 
Compounds : as, accedo (ad-cedo), officio (ad-facio), occurro (ob- 
curro), corruo {com-ruo), effero (ec-fero), suppono (sub-pono). 

Note. — The rules for this assimilation may be given as follows : ad is 
assimilated before c, g, /, t ; less regularly before /, r, s, and rarely before m ; 
while before/, ;z, q, the form ad is to be preferred ; — ab is not assimilated, but 
may take the form a, an, or abs ; — in com (con, co), m is retained before b,p, m; 
is assimilated before /, n, r ; is changed to n before c, d,f,g, j, q, s, v ; some- 
times becomes ?i before/; is sometimes assimilated (otherwise n) before /and r ; 
com loses the final m in conecto, coniveo, conitor, connbium ; — in usually changes 
n to m before b, m, p ; before /the better orthography retains n ; — ob and sub 
are assimilated before c, /, g, p, and sometimes before m ; sub also before r; and, 
in early Latin, b of these prepositions sometimes becomes p before s or t. The 
inseparable amb loses b before a consonant, and m is sometimes assimilated ; — 
circum loses m before i (often) ; — s of dis before a vowel becomes r, and before 
a consonant is lost or assimilated ; — the d of red and sed is generally lost 
before a consonant. In most of these cases the later editions prefer the unaltered 
forms throughout ; but the changes given above have good authority. Others, 
which are corruptions of the middle ages (as assum for adsum), would better 
be avoided. Lexicons ^ary in the spelling of these combin: tions. 



Phonetic Changes; Combinations. 5 

12. Variations of spelling occur as follows : — 

a. Interchange of ci and ti before a vowel : as, nuntio, nuncio; 
contio, concio j dicio, ditto; condicio, conditio ; suspitio, susplcio. 
In these cases, the former is the more approved spelling, though 
the latter may still be frequently found. 

Note. — The substitution of c for t (or the converse) is an example of phonetic 
decay, and belongs to a later period of the language. In Italian, z, and in 
Spanish, c, has regularly taken the place of t in such combinations : as in nazione, 
nacion. The sound of s or of sh traceable in them led gradually to the adoption 
of this as the regular sound of c before e or i (assibilation). 

b. Several words are written sometimes with and sometimes 
without an initial H : as, arena or harena, erus or herus, umerus 
or humerus, iimor or humor* The combinations ph, th, are found 
only in words taken from the Greek. 

c. Many words are variously spelled in different editions : as, 
adolescents, adulescens ; anulus, annulus ; caelum, coelum ; epistola, 
epistula; fe?nina, foemina; liter a, litter a; milia, 77iillia; nequi- 
quam, nequicquam, nequidquam ; paulus, paullus ; quicquam, 
quidquam ; umquam, unquamj verto, vorto ; volnus, vulnus ; 
also the gerund-forms -endus or -undus, and the superlative -imus 
or -umus. The old form lubet is often used for libet. 1 

C ombination s . 

13. Two words are often united in writing, and 
sometimes in sound. Thus — 

a. Conjunctions or other particles are connected : as in etenim, 
jamdiu, siquis, siquidem; also a few short phrases : as, quare, 
quamobrem, respublica, jusjurandum, paterfamilias . 

b. The verb est, is, is joined with the preceding word, espe- 
cially in the old poets, or when the two would be united by 
elision : as, homos t, periculumst, ausust (like thou'rt, I've). 

c. Similar contractions are found in virt (visne), scin* (scisne), 
sis {si vis), sodes {si audes). So in English, don't, won't. 2 



1 Many of the above variations are due to the practice of writing from dictation, 
or by the ear, by which most MS. copies of the classics were made, — a single 
reader often dictating to numerous copyists, whose spelling was often corrupt, 
and without authority. The tendency of the more approved editions is to restore 
the forms of the late Republic or early Empire (the time of Cicero or Augustus), 
so far as this can be determined by inscriptions, &c. The choice among the 
forms appears often to be arbitrary. 2 Old English, woll not. 



6 Etymology : Letters and Sounds. 

Syllables. 

14. In the division of syllables, a single consonant 
between two vowels is to be written with the latter. 

a. This rule is sometimes extended to double consonants, or 
any combination of consonants which can be used to becnn a 
word : as, ho-spes, ?na-gnus, di-xit. 

b. In compounds, the parts should be separated : as, ab-est, 
ob-latus. 

c. A syllable preceded by a vowel in the same word is called 
pure, as pi us; when preceded by a consonant, impure, as constat. 

d. An initial syllable ending, or any other syllable beginning, 
with a vowel, is called open; otherwise, it is called close. 

Kindred Forms. 

15. In English words derived from the Latin, the original 
letters are retained (as ambition from ambitio). 1 But in true 
English words which come from the same source as the Latin 
(see Appendix), the original letters are rarely represented by 
the same but usually by closely related letters, which regularly 
correspond. Sometimes a consonant lost in the Latin appears 
in the English word. Thus — 

LATIN ENGLISH 

c, k,qu H, wh : qui, who; cos, hone; carpo, harvest; calo 
(kalendae), hail ; cord-, heart. 

g K, ch : genus, kin; genu, knee; gusto, choose. 

t th : tu, thou; tres, three; tenuis, thin. 

T or D (rarely) : stare, stand \ torreo, dry. 

d T: duo, two; dens, tooth; sedeo, sit. 

p F: pater, father; pullus, foal; pauci, few. 

f (for bh) B : fero, bear ; frater, brother. 

f (for dJi) D : fores (Bvpa), doors ; fera (0r]p), deer. 

h G : veho, wagon; hortus, garden; hostis, guest. 

i (j) ; u (v) Y; w: }ugum,yoke; ovis, ewe. 

Lost: (s)niv-, snow; (h)anser, goose; (s)nervo-, snare. 
Sounds of the Letters. 

Note. — The pronunciation of Latin is different in different 
countries. Among us, it usually follows one of two ways, which 
may be called the Roman (or Phonetic) and the English. 



1 Many words, however, coming through the French follow French changes : as, 
fashion, fa^on {/actio) ; chivalry, cheval (caballus) ; chimney, che?ninee (caminus). 



Pronunciation, 7 

16. By the Roman (or Phonetic) method, every letter 
lias always the same sound, as follows : — 

Vowels : a as in father; a as in idea. 

e as eh ? (prolonged) ; they; e as eh ? (clipped). 

I as in machine; X as in holiest. 

6 as in holy; 5 as in obey. 

u as oo in boot ; tt as oo in foot. 

N.B. — Vowels marked thus, a, e, i, 6, u, are long; marked 
thus, a, e\ I, 6, u, are short. 

A long syllable is reckoned equal to two short ones. 
Diphthongs : ae like ay 1 ; oe like oy ; au like ow in now. 

ei as in eight; eu as ew 2 ; ui as we (pdee). 
Consonants : c and g are always hard, as in come, get. 

s is always sharp, as in sea, lips. 

j is likely v like w ; qu as in English. 

bs is likely ch like k; ph like/ 
Note. — In the ancient pronunciation, ph was distinguished from f by 
being sounded with the lips only, instead of lip and teeth. In many words (as 
Metis, tenuis), I and u sometimes had the consonant sound, though usually 
in such words reckoned as vowels. The diphthong ae was anciently sounded as 
above, but early in the time of the Empire acquired from popular or provincial 
use the long sound of e. When two consonants come together (as in condo, 
magnus), or a consonant is doubled (as in annus, ullus, mitto), care should be 
taken to pronounce both letters distinctly. It was doubtless this distinct pronuncia- 
tion of consonants that made a syllable with a short vowel long by Position (18. d). 

17. By the English method, the letters have the same 
sound as in English ; but — 

a. There are no silent letters, each word having as many- 
syllables as there are vowels or diphthongs. 

b. Final a is pronounced as in America; but in the mono- 
syllables a, da, qua, sta, the long sound is sometimes given. 

c. The diphthongs ae, oe, are pronounced like e; au like aw; 
eu like ew ; ei and ui like i in kite; es and (in plural words) 
os at the end of a word as in disease, morose. 

d. The consonants c and g are made soft (like s and j) before 
e, i, y, ae, oe, eu : ch is always hard, as in chasm, chemist. 

Note. — The English method should be retained in the translation of Roman 
names, as Julius Cczsar ; and in the quoting of familiar phrases, as e pluribus 
unum ; viva voce; a fortiori ; veni, vidi, vici, &c. 



§2 
1. 



1. b 
1. c 



2. 



1 As in the nautical ay, ay, sir. 2 As in fei 



8 Etymology: Letters and Sounds. 

Quantity and Accent. 

18. The following are general Rules of Quantity: — 

a. A vowel before another vowel or h is short : as in via, 
nihil. 

b. A diphthong is long : as in aedes % foedus. 

c. A syllable formed by contraction is long : as nil {nihil). 

d. A syllable in which a vowel is followed by two consonants, 
or a double consonant (x, z), is long : as in rectus, rexit. Before 
nf and ns the vowel itself becomes long : as in infero, praesens. 

e. A syllable in which a short vowel is followed by a mute 
with 1 or r is common ; i. e. it may be long in verse : as in 
alacris, latebrae. 

N - B - — Tn e sign - indicates that a vowel is usually long; that 
it is usually short. But the former is also used to denote any 
vowel that is common. 

19. The following are Rules of Accent : — 

a. Words of two syllables are always accented on the first 
syllable. 

b. Words of more than two syllables are accented on the 
Penult, if that is long : as, amicus ; if it is short or common, 
then on the Antepenult : as, dd minus, a'lacris, la'tebrae. 

Definition: The Penult is the last syllable but one; the Ante- 
penult, the last but two. (For exceptions, see 40. &, 142. b.) 

c. When an Enclitic is joined to a word, the accent falls on 
the syllable next before the enclitic, whether long or short : as, 
dea'que, amdre've, tibi'ne, itaJ que (and so), as distinguished from 
i'taque, (therefore). So (according to some authorities) etfinde, 
edquando, &c. 

Note. — The ancients recognized three accents, acute ('), grave ( v ), and 
circumflex ( A ). Accent no doubt consisted in a change of pitch, — elevation, 
depression, or both combined, — and not merely in a more forcible utterance 
{ictus"). But as, in all cases except in reading poetry (which was a sort of 
recitative), the ictus and elevation coincided, the matter is unimportant in Latin. 
Indeed, an accurate ear will distinguish the same thing in English, though much 
slighter than probably existed among the ancients. 

The Rules of Accent given above are the only ones which are recognized in 
modern usage, or which it seems worth while to observe. But the circmuflcx 
accent, including both acute and grave, was recognized by the ancients in all long 
monosyllables (as mos, das), and in a few other cases. The sign A is often written 
merely to show contraction : as, nil (?zi/iil), intrdrat (intraverat), or to mark the 
long a of the ablative : as, Romd. 



Inflection ; Root and Stem. 9 

Chapter II. — Words and their Forms. 

Inflection, 

20. Inflection is a change made in the form of a 
word, to show its grammatical relations. 

a. Changes of inflection sometimes take place in the body of 
a word, or at the beginning, but of tener in its termination : as, 
vox, a voice j vocis, of a voice j voco, / call j vocat, he calls j 
vocavit, he has called; tangit, he touches j tetigit, he touched. 

b. Terminations of inflection had originally an independent 
meaning which is now obscured. They correspond nearly to the 
use of prepositions, auxiliaries, or personal pronouns in English : 
thus, in vocat, the termination is equivalent to he or she j in 
vocis, to the preposition of; and in vocet the change of vowel 
signifies a change of mood. 

c. Changes of inflection in the body of a verb usually denote 
relations of tense or mood, and correspond to the use of auxiliary 
verbs in English : as, frangit (root frag-), he breaks or is break- 
ing ; fregit, he broke or has broken; frangat, let him break. 1 

Root and Stem. 

21. The body of a word, to which the terminations 
are attached, is called the Stem. 2 

The Stem contains the idea of the word without relations ; but, 
in general, it cannot be used without some termination to express 
them. Thus the stem voc- denotes voice ; with -s added it 
becomes vox, a voice or the voice, as the subject or agent of an 
action ; with -is it becomes vocis, and signifies of a voice. It 
is in many forms so united with the termination that a comparison 
with other forms is necessary to determine it. 

22. A primitive form, expressing the simple idea less 
definitely, and common also to other words, either in 
the same or other languages, is called a Root. 3 



1 The only proper inflections of verbs are those of the personal endings ; and 
the changes here referred to are strictly changes of Stem. 

2 The name Stem is sometimes incorrectly given to that part of a word — as 
serv- in servus — which is unchanged in inflection. This may, for convenience, 
be called the Base. 

3 For example, the root sta is found in the Sanskrit tist/idmz, Greek io-ttj^i, 
Latin sistere and stare, German ftefyen, and English stand. (See Chap. VIII.) 



io Etymology : Words and their Forms. 

Thus the root of the stem voc- is voc, which means not 
to call, or / call, or calling, but merely callj and cannot be used 
as a part of speech without terminations. With a it becomes 
vbca-, the stem of vocdre (to call) ; with avi- it is the stem of 
vocdvit (he called) ; with ato- it becomes the stem of vocatus 
(called) ; with ation- it becomes the stem of vocationis (of a 
calling). With its vowel lengthened it becomes the stem of 
vox (a voice : that by which we call). This stem, again, with 
alis added, means belonging to a voice; with ula, a little voice. 

Note. — In inflected languages, words are built up from Roots, which at a 
very early time were used alone to express ideas, as is now done in Chinese. 
Roots are modified into Stems, which, by inflection, become Words. The process 
by which they are modified, in the various forms of derivatives and compounds, 
is called Stem-building. 

23. The Stem is sometimes the same with the Root : as in 
due-is, fer-t j but is more frequently formed from the root — 

1. By changing or lengthening its vowel, as in reg-is, voc-is; 

2. By the addition or insertion of a consonant, as in tollo,ftango 

(from tul, pag ; here a vowel also is added : see 4) ; 

3. By the addition of a terminal vowel, as \x\ fugi-s,fuga (fug) ; 

4. By two or more of these methods, as in diici-t j 

5. By derivation and composition, following the laws of develop- 

ment peculiar to the language (see Chapter VIII.). 

24. The terminations of inflection are variously modified by 
combination with the final vowel or consonant of the Stem, leading 
to the various forms of Declension and Conjugation (see 32 1 ). 

Note. — A termination beginning with a vowel is called an open affix; one 
beginning with a consonant, a close affix. When a close affix is joined to a con- 
sonant-stem, there is usually either a euphonic change, as rexi for reg-si, or a 
vowel appears, as reg-i-bus. But, in most cases, what is called a connecting 
vowel really belongs to the stem, as in voca-mus, regi-mus (see p. 72. «.). 

The Parts of Speech. 

25. Words are either Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns, 
Verbs, Participles, Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunc- 
tions, or Interjections. These are called Parts of 
Speech. 

a. Words like Casar, consul, temple, virtue, which are names 
of persons, things, or ideas, are called Nouns. Names of persons 
and places are called Proper Nouns. 

b. Words like brave, loud, strong, which express qualities, are 
called Adjectives. 



Parts of Speech ; Gender. 1 1 

c. Words which indicate any person or thing, without either 
naming or describing, are called Pronouns. These include Per- 
sonal, as I, thou, we, he, they ; and Adjective, as these, those 
(Demonstrative), my, your (Possessive), who, which (Relative or 
Interrogative). 

d. Words like build, fight, stand, be, suffer, which express actions 
or conditions, are called Verbs. 

e. Words like conquering, going, gone, beaten, which describe by 
means of actions or conditions, are called Participles. 

f. Words like nobly, well, very, here, now, to-day, which define 
an action or quality in manner, place, time, or the like, are called 
Adverbs. 

g. Words like for, with, by, against, which show the relation 
between a noun and other words in the sentence, are called 
Prepositions. 

h. Words like and, or, if, but, because, which connect words 
or sentences together, are called Conjunctions. 

i. Some words, as where, while, till, nevertheless, both define 
as adverbs and connect as conjunctions. These are called Ad- 
verbial Conjunctions. 

k. Words like ah ! ho ! alas / are mere exclamations, and are 
not strictly parts of speech, but are called Interjections. 

26. Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns, and Participles have inflec- 
tions of declension, to denote gender, number, and case. Verbs 
have inflections of conjugation, to denote voice, mood, tense, num- 
ber, and person. 

27. Those parts of speech which are not inflected are called 
Particles : these are Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and 
Interjections. 

Note. — The term Particle is sometimes limited to such words as num, -ne, 
AN {interrogative), NON, ne {negative), si {conditional), &c, which are used 
simply to indicate the form or construction of a sentence. Interjections are not 
properly to be classed among parts of speech, and differ little from inarticulate 
sounds. For convenience, a list is given of those in most common use, following 
the Conjunctions. 

Gender. 

28. The gender of Latin nouns is either natural or 
grammatical. 

a. Natural gender is distinction as to the sex of the object 
denoted : as, puer, boy ; puella, girl; donum, gift. 



1 2 Etymology : Words and their Forms. 

b. Many masculine nouns have a corresponding feminine form : 
as, cervus, cerva, stag, doe ; cliens, clienta, client; victor, victrix, 
conqueror. Many designations of persons (as nauta, sailor), usu- 
ally though not necessarily male, are masculine. 

c. Grammatical gender is a like distinction where no sex exists 
in the object, and is shown by the form of the adjective joined with 
it : as, lapis magnus (m.), a great stone j manus mea (f.), my 
hand. 

d. A few neuter nouns are used to designate persons as belong- 
ing to a class : as, mancipium tuum, your slave. Names of classes 
or bodies of persons may be of either gender : as, exercitus (m.). 
acies (f.), and agmen (n.), army; and the feminine operae, work- 
men, copiae, trcops. Many pet names (as Paegnium, Glycerium) 
are also neuter. 

Note. — What we call grammatical gender is in most cases the product of the 
imagination at a rude age. when language was in the course of growth. Thus a 
River was seen, or a Wind was felt, as a living creature, violent and strong, and so 
is masculine ; a Month is a guide or divider of tasks, and so is masculine ; and the 
fable of Atlas shows how similar living attributes were ascribed to Mountains, which, 
in the northern fables, are the bones of giants. Again, the Earth, or a country or 
city, seems the mother of its progeny ; the Tree shelters and ripens its fruit, as a 
brooding bird her nest of eggs ; and, to this day, a Ship is always referred to by a 
feminine pronoun. 

Again, in the East and South, the Sun, from its fierce heat and splendor, is 
masculine, and its paler attendant, the Moon, feminine ; while, among northern 
nations, the Sun (perhaps for its comforting warmth) is feminine, and the Moon 
(the appointer of works and days) masculine. The rules of grammatical gender 
only repeat and extend these early workings of the fancy. 

29. Names of Male beings, Rivers, Winds, and Mountains, are 
masculine ; names of Female beings, Cities, Countries, Plants, and 
Gems, of many Animals (especially Birds), and of most abstract 
Qualities, are feminine. 

Note. — Most of the above may be recognized by their terminations, according 
to the rules of gender under the several declensions. 

a. A few names of Rivers ending in a, with the Greek names 
Lethe and Styx, are feminine ; others are variable or uncertain. 

Some names of Mountains take the gender of their termination : 
as, Alpes (f.), Soracte (n.). Names of Months are properly adjec- 
tives, the masculine noun mensis being understood. 

b. Some names of Towns and Countries are masculine, as 
Sulmo, Gabii (plur.) ; or neuter, as Tarentum, Illyricum. A few 
names of plants and gems follow the gender of their termination. 



Gender ; Number and Case. 13 

c. Indeclinable nouns, infinitives, terms or phrases used as 
nouns, and words quoted merely for their form, are neuter : as, 
fas, nihil) gummi j scire tuum, triste valej hoc ipsum diu. 

30. Many nouns may be either masculine or feminine, accord- 
ing to the sex of the object. These are said to be of Common 
Gender : as, exsul, exile j bos, ox or cow. 

a. If a noun signifying a thing without life may be either 
masculine or feminine, — as, dies, day j finis, end, — it is some- 
times said to be of Doubtful Gender. 

b. Several names of animals have a grammatical gender, in- 
dependent of sex. These are called Epicene. Thus lepus, hare, 
is always masculine, and vulpes, fox, is always feminine. To 
denote a male fox we may say, vulpes mascula; or a female 
hare, lepus femina. 

Number and Case. 

31. Nouns, Pronouns, and Adjectives are declined in 
two Numbers, singular and plural ; and in six Cases, 
nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, vocative, ablative. 

a. The Nominative is the case of the Subject of a sentence 

b. The Genitive may generally be translated by the English 
Possessive, or with the preposition of. 

c. The Dative is the case of the Indirect Object : it may usually 
be translated by the preposition to or for ; but sometimes 
corresponds to the English Objective. 

d. The Accusative is the case of the Direct Object : it is used 
with many of the Latin Prepositions. 

e. The Vocative is the case of Direct Address. 

f. The Ablative may usually be translated by from, by, with, 
in, or at. It is also often used with prepositions. 

g. All the cases, except the nominative and vocative, may be 
used as object-cases ; and are sometimes called oblique cases. 

h. In names of towns and a few other words appear traces 
of another case (the locative), denoting the place where. 

Note. — A more convenient arrangement of the cases is the 
following (See Note, p. 145) : — 

Direct Cases : A T ominative, Vocative, Accusative, 

Indirect Cases : Genitive, Dative, Ablative. 



14 Etymology: Declension of Nouns. 

Chapter III. — Declension of Nouns. 

32. Nouns are inflected in five Declensions, distin- 
guished by the termination of the Genitive Singular, 
and by the final letter (characteristic) of the Stem. 1 

Decl. i. Gen. Sing, ae Characteristic a (anciently a) 
» 2 * » 1 „ 5 

» 3« » *s w I or a Consonant 

» 4- „ us (uis) „ ii 

» 5* » ©i „ § 

#. The stem of a noun may be found, if a consonant-stem, by 
omitting the case-ending; if a vowel-stem, by substituting for 
the case-ending the characteristic vowel. 

b. The Nominative of most masculine and feminine nouns (ex- 
cept in the first declension) is formed from the Stem by adding s. 2 

Note. — Many, however, end in o, or in the liquids, l, n, r, — the original s 
(sometimes with one or more letters of the stem) having been lost through phonetic 
decay. In some (as in servus) the stem -vowel is modified before the final s ; 
and in some, as in ager, pater, a vowel is inserted in the stem. 

33. The following are general Rules of Declension : 

a. The Vocative is always the same with the Nominative, 
except in the singular of nouns in us of the second declension. 3 

b. In neuters the nominative and accusative are always alike, 
and in the plural end in a. 



1 Declension is produced by adding terminations originally significant to 
different forms of stems, vowel or consonant. The various phonetic corruptions 
in the language have given rise to the several forms of declension ; but it is proba- 
ble that originally there was only one form, with perhaps a few variations. The 
original terminations (answering to prepositions) can no longer be determined with 
certainty, though some earlier forms may be known. Most of the case-endings, as 
given in Latin, contain also the final letter of the stem. 

Adjectives are, in general, declined like nouns, and are etymologically to be 
classed with them. But they have several peculiarities of inflection, and will be 
more conveniently treated in a group by themselves (see Chapter IV.). 

2 The s of the nominative is the remnant of an old demonstrative sa, which is 
found (with modifications) in the Sanskrit personal pro7ioun, in the Greek article, 
and in the English she. 

8 In the first and second declensions the vocative ends in the (modified) stem- 
vowel. Most of the words likely to be used in address are of these forms ; and, 
in practice, few other words have a vocative. It is given in the paradigms for the 
sake of symmetry, but may well be omitted in declining. 



First Declension. 



15 



c. Except in some neuters, the accusative singular always 
ends in m, and the accusative plural in s. 

d. In the last three declensions (and in a few cases in the 
others) the dative singular ends in L 

e. The dative and ablative plural are always alike. 

f. The genitive plural always ends in um. 

g. The final i, o, u of inflection are always long j the final a is 
shorty except in the ablative singular of the first declension ; the 
final e is long in the first and fifth declensions, short in the second 
and third. 

34. The case-endings of the several declensions are the follow- 
ing, rare forms being given in parenthesis, Greek forms in italics : — 



Decl. 1. 


11. 


in. 


IV. 


v. 


Sing. 








n. a 1, as, «,us,um, eros, on, eus 


S (or modified Stem) 


us, u. 


es 


g. ae (ai) is 1 (ius) 0, u, ei 


13 yos, os 


us (uis) 


el(e) 


d. ae (ai) (ij */, eo 


1 


ui(u) 


ei(ft) 


a. am an, I11 um on ea 


em (ini) in,yn a 


um, u. 


em 


v. a e 


e (i) er eu 


(as r.cra.) 1, y 


iis, u 


es 


a. a 1 


6 eo 


e(I), 1 ye 


u. 


e 


Plur. 










n. v. ae 


1 a 


es, a, ia is 


us, ua 


es 


g. arum (um) 


orum (um, om) on um, ium eon 


uum 


erum 


d. a. is (abus) 


is (obus) lbus 


ibus(ubus) 


ebus 


a. as 


OS 


es (13), a, ia as 


us, ua 


es 



FIRST DECLENSION. 

Note. — The Stem of nouns of the First Declension ends 
in & : Latin nouns have the Nominative like the stem. 

35. Latin nouns of the First Declension are thus 
declined : — 

SINGULAR. 

Nominative. stella, a (or the) star. 

Genitive. stellae, of a star. 

Dative. stellae, to a star. 

Accusative. stellam, a star. 

Vocative. stella, thou star / 

Ablative. stella, with a star. 

Gender. Most nouns of the first declension are Femi- 
nine. Nearly all the exceptions are such as are masculine from 
their signification : as, nauta (sailor). Also, Hadria (the Adriatic), 
and a few family or personal names : as, Murena, Sulla. 

36. Case-Forms, a. The genitive singular anciently ended 
in ai, which is occasionally found in a few authors : as, aulai. 
The same ending occurs in the dative, but only as a diphthong. 



PLURAL. 

stellae, stars. 
stellarum, of stars. 
stellis, to stars. 
stellai, stars. 
stellae, ye stars / 
stellls, with stars. 



1 6 Etymology: Declension of Nouns, 

b. There is also an old genitive in as, found in the word 
familids used in certain combinations : as, pater {mater, filius, 
fllia) familias. 

c. The Locative form for the singular ends in ae, and for 
the plural in is: as, Romae, at Rome; Athenis, at Athens. 

d. The genitive plural is sometimes found in urn instead of 
arum, especially in compounds with -cola and -gena, signifying 
dwelling and descent: as, caelicolum (heavenly ones), Troju- 
genum (sons of Troy) ; with amphora and drachma. 

e. The dative and ablative plural of dea, goddess, fllia, daughter, 
— also, rarely, of several other words: as, liberta, freed-woman, 
mula, she-mule, — end in an older form -abus. But, except when 
the two sexes (as in formulas, documents, &c.) are mentioned 
together, the form in is is preferred in all but dea, filia. 

N. B. For the corresponding forms of Adjectives, see Chap. IV. 
Greek Nouns. 

37. Greek nouns of the first declension retain traces 
of their Greek formation, and are thus declined : — 

laurel (f). JEneas (m.). Anch'ses (m.). 

daphne Aeneas Anchises 

daphnes (ae) Aeneae Anchisae 

daphne (ae) Aeneae Anchisae 

daphnen Aenean (am) Anchisen 

daphne Aenea (a) Anchise (a) 

daphne (a) Aenea Anchise (a) 

These forms are found only in the singular ; the plural is 
regular: as, cometae, arum, &c. There are of this kind (besides 
proper names) about thirty-five words, several being names of 
plants, or names of arts : as, musice. Most have also regular Latin 
forms in a : as, cometa. 

SECOND DECLENSION. 

Note. — The Stem of nouns of the Second Declension ends 
in o (as of vir, viro-, and of servus, servo-). 1 The Nominative is 
formed from the stem by adding s (in neuters m), the characteristic 
6 being weakened to ii (see io. b). 

In most nouns whose stem ends in ro-, the s is not added, but 
the o is lost, and e is inserted before r. Thus ager (stem agro-) 
is the same as the Greek dypos. The exceptions are hesperus, 
humerus, juniperus, morus, nui7iertis, uterus, taurus, virus. 

1 This form is an original a-stem, to which the a-stem of the first declension is 
the corresponding feminine. 





comet (m.). 


Nom. 


cometes (a) 


Gen. 


cometae 


Dat. 


cometae 


Ace. 


cometen (am 


Voc. 


cometa 


Abl. 


cometa (e) 



Second Declension, 



17 



38. Latin nouns of the Second Declension are thus 
declined : — 



Sing. 


slave (m.). 


boy (m.). 


field (m.). 


man (m.). 


war (n.). 


Nom. 


servus 


puer 


ager 


vir 


bellum 


Gen. 


servi 


pueri 


agri 


viri 


belli 


DAT. 


servo 


puero 


agro 


vir5 


bello 


Ace. 


servum 


puerum 


agrum 


virum 


bellum 


Voc. 


serve 


puer 


ager 


vir 


bellum 


Abl. 


servo 


puero 


agro 


viro 


bello 


Plur. 












Nom. 


servi - 


pueri 


agri 


viri 


bella 


Gen. 


servorum 


puerorum 


agrorum 


virorum 


bellorum 


DAT. 


servis - 


pueris 


agris 


viris 


bellis 


Acc. 


servos 


pueros 


agros 


vir os 


bella 


Voc. 


servi . 


pueri 


agri 


viri 


bella 


Abl. 


servis - 


pueris 


agris 


viris 


bellis 



Note. — The old form os, om (for us, urn), is sometimes used 
after u or v : as, servos, servom. The case-ending s or m is some- 
times omitted in inscriptions, &c, as Cornelio, for Cornelius or 
Cornelium. 

39. Gender. — Nouns ending in us (os), er, ir, are 
masculine ; those ending in urn (on) are Neuter. But — 

a. Names of towns in us (os) are Feminine : as, Corinthus. 
Also many names of Plants and Gems, with the following : — 

arctus (os), the Polar Bear; alvus, belly j carbasus, linen 
(plural carbasa, sails, N.) ; colus, distaff; humus, grotmd; 
vannus, winnowing-shovel. 

b. The following in us are Neuter ; their accusative, as of all 
neuters, is the same as the nominative : — 

pelagus, 1 sea; virus, poison ; vulgus (rarely M.), the crowd. 

40. Case-Forms, a. The Locative form of this declension for 
the singular ends in i : as, humi, on the ground; Corinthi, at 
Corinth. For the plural, in is : as, Philippis, at Philippi. 

b. The genitive of nouns in ius or ium ends by earlier use with 
a single i : as, fili, of a son ; inge'ni, of genius.' 1 The same con- 
traction occurs with the genitive singular and the dative and abla- 
tive plural of nouns in aius and eius : as, Grais, Pompei. 

1 This has a Greek plural pelage : virus and vulgus have no plural. 

2 The genitive in it occurs twice in Virgil, and constantly in Ovid. The accent 
remains (as in ing'eni) on the syllable preceding the contraction. 



iS Etymology: Declension of Nouns. 

c. Proper names in ius lose e in the vocative, as Vergi'li ; also, 
filius, son; genius, divine guardian. The possessive meus, my, 
has ml : as, audi, ml fill, hear, my son. 

d. Greek names in ius have the vocative ie ; and adjectives 
derived from proper names — as Lacedaemonius — also form the 
vocative in ie. 

e. In the genitive plural, um or (after v) om is often found for 
orum, especially in poets, and in certain words of money, measure, 
and weight : as, nummum,jugeru?n. 

f. "Deus,god, has vocative deus ; plural : nominative and vocative 
dei or di (dii) ; dative and ablative deis or dis (diis). For the geni- 
tive plural deorum, divum or divom (from divus), is often used. 

41. The following stems in ero-, in which e belongs to the stem, 
retain e throughout: compounds in -fer and -ger, as lucifer, -feri, 
light-bringer ; armiger, -geri, armor-bearer. Also, 

adulter, adulterer; gener, son-in-law ; puer, boy ; 
socer, father-in-law ; vesper, evening. 

a. Some of these have an old nominative in erus : as, socerus. 

b. Vir, man, has the genitive viri; the adjective satur, sated, 
has satiiri ; vesper has abl. vespere (loc, vesperi). 

c. Liber (a name of Bacchus) has genitive Liberi ; so, too, the 
adjective liber,// ee, of which liberi, children, is the plural. 

42. The following insert e in the nominative and vocative : — 
a.ger,feld. coluber, snake. liber, book. 

aper, boar. conger, sea-eel. magister, master. 

arbiter, judge. culter, knife. minister, servant. 

auster, south-wind, faber, smith. oleaster, wild-olive. 

cancer, crab. fiber, beaver. onager (grus), wild-ass. 

caper, goat. geometer, geometer, scomber (brus), mackerel. 

N.B. For the corresponding forms of Adjectives, see Chap. IV. 

43. Greek nouns — including many names in eus — 
are declined as follows in the singular, the plural being 
regular : — 





fable (m.)- 


■mock-sun (n.)« 


Delos (f.). 


Athos (m.). 


OrpJteiis (m.). 


Nom. 


mythos 


pare lion 


Delos 


Ath6s(6) 


Orpheus 


Gen. 


mythi 


parelii 


Deli 


Atho (i) 


Orpheos (ei) 


Dat. 


mytho 


parelio 


Delo 


Atho 


Orphei 


Ace 


mython 


parelion 


Delon(um) 


Atho (on) 


Orphea 


Voc. 


mythe 


parelion 


Dele 


Athos 


Orpheu 



Abl mytho parelio Delo Atho Orpheo 



Third Declension: Mute- Stems. 19 

a. Many names in es belonging to the Third Declension have 
also a genitive in 1, as Thucydiaes, Thucydidl (compare 52). 

b. Several names in er have also a form in us : as, Teucer or 
Teucrus. The name Panthus has the vocative Panthu. 

c. The genitive plural of certain titles takes the Greek ter- 
mination on : as, Georgicon. 

THIRD DECLENSION. 

Note. — Nouns of the Third Declension are most conveniently 
classed according to their stems, as ending either in a Vowel (i), 
a Liquid (1, n, r), or a Mute. A few whose stems ends in u (griis, 
sfis) are treated as consonant-stems. The Nominative (except of 
neuters and of liquid-stems) is found by adding s to the stem. 

1. — Mute-Stems. 

44. Masculine or feminine nouns, whose stem ends in 
a Mute, form the nominative by adding s. If the mute 
is a lingual (t, d), it is suppressed before s ; if it is a 
palatal (c, g), it unites with s, forming x. Neuters have 
for nominative the simple stem. 

Examples : op-is, ops ; custod-is, custos ; reg-is, rex. 1 

45. The vowel before the final consonant of the stem 
is often modified k^ 

a. Labials. — Stems in Ip- have e in the nominative: as, 
adip-is, adeps. Most stems in cip- are compounds of the root 
cap (in capio, take) : as, particip-is, particeps. In these the stem 
sometimes has the form cup-, as aucip-is, auceps. 

b. Linguals. — Stems in it- (m. or F.) have e in the nomina- 
tive : as, hospit-is, hospes. The neuter capit-is has caput. Neuter 
stems ending in two consonants, and those ending in at- (Greek 
nouns), drop the final lingual : as, cord-is, cor j poemat-is, poema. 

c. Palatals. — Stems in ic- (short i) have the nominative in 
ex, 2 and are chiefly masculine : as, apic-is, apex. Those in Ic- 
(long i) retain i, and are feminine : as, cornlc-is, comix? 

1 In these examples the genitive form is given to show the stem as it occurs in 
practice. 

2 With a few exceptions (see 67. e). 

3 In nix, nivis, the nominative contains a palatal lost in the other cases 
(original stem snig-, compare ningit). Supcllex (ectilis) is partly a lingual, partly 



20 



Etymology : Declension of Nouns. 



46. Nouns of this class are declined as follows : — 



Sing. 


help (f.). 


king (m.). 


guide (c] 


. soldier (m.] 


). head (n.) 


Nom. 


[ops] 1 


rex 


dux 


miles 


caput 


Gen. 


opis 


regis 


ducis 


militis 


capitis 


DAT. 


opi 


regi 


duel 


militi 


capiti 


Ace. 


opem 


regem 


ducem 


militem 


caput 


Voc. 


ops 


rex 


dux 


miles 


caput 


Abl. 


ope 


rege 


duce 


milite 


capite 


Plur. 


wealth. 










Nom. 


opes 


reges 


duces 


mllites 


capita 


Gen. 


opum 


regum 


ducum 


militum 


capitum 


DAT. 


opibus 


regibus 


ducibus 


militibus 


capitibus 


Ace. 


opes 


regis 


duces 


mllites 


capita 


Voc. 


opes 


reges 


duces 


mllites 


capita 


Abl. 


opibus 


regibus 


ducibus 


militibus 


capitibus 



47. In like manner are declined — 

princeps, ipis (c.), chief. aries, etis (m.), rain. 

lapis, idis (m.), stone. apex, apicis (m.), peak. 

custos, odis (c.), guard. cornix, icis (f.), raven. 

comes, itis (c.), companion. poema, atis (x.),poem (47. b). 

a. Many apparent mute-stems, having the genitive plural in 
ium, are to be classed with i-stems (54). 

b. Greek neuters (as poema) , with nominative singular in a, 
frequently end the dative and ablative plural in is, and the genitive 
rarely in orum. 

2. — liquid-Stems. 

48. In nouns whose stem ends in a Liquid (1, n, r), 
the nominative is the same as the stem, except when 
modified as follows : — 

a. Stems in on- (m. and F.) drop n : as, in leon-is, leo ; legion-is, 
legio. 

b. Stems in din- or gin- (mostly feminine) have o in the nom- 
inative : as, virgin-is, virgo. Other stems in in- have e : as, 
cornicin-is, cornicen (m.) ; carmin-is, carmen (n). 



an i-stem. Of apparent s-stems in Latin, as (assis) is an /-stem ; the original stem 
of os, osszs, is osti- (cf. beneov and Sanskrit asthi) ; while the others have either 
(1) passed into r-stems (changed from s) in most of the cases, as hoiior, oris, 
corpus, 6ris (see liquid stems); or (2) have broken down into /-stems, as nicies 
(cf. molestus), nudes (Sanskrit nabkas), sedes (cf. e'So?), ifts (vires), &c. 

1 The singular (meaning help) is not used in the nominative, except as the 
name of a divinity. 



Third Declension : Liquid-Stems. 



21 



c. Stems in tr- have their nominative ter : as, patr-is, pater. 

d. Many neuter stems in er and or have the nominative in 
us : as, oper-is, opus j corpor-is, corpus. A few masculine and 
feminine stems also have the nominative in s as well as r : as, 
honor-is ; honos (or honor) ; arbor-is, arbos (or arbor)} 

e. Stems in 11, rr (n.) lose one of their liquids in the nomina 
tive : as farr-is, farj fell-is, fel. 

49. Nouns of this class are declined as follows : — 



Sing. 

Nom. 
Gen. 
Dat. 

Ace. 
Voc. 
Abl. 

Plur. 

Nom. 

Gen. 

Dat. 

Ace. 

Voc. 

Abl. 

50. 



consul (u.~).lion (m.). maiden (f.). name (n.). body (n.). 



consul 

consulis 

consul! 

consulem 

consul 

consule 

consules 

consulum 

consulibus 

consules 

consules 



leo 

leonis 

leoni 

leonem 

leo 

leone 

leones 
leonum 



virgo 

virginis 
virgin! 
virgin em 
virgo 
virgine 



virgmes 
vinjinum 



leonibus virginibus 
leones virgines 
leones virgines 



nomen 

nominis 

nomini 

nomen 

nomen 

nomine 



nomina 

nominum 

nominibus 

nomina 

nomina 



corpus 

corporis 

corpori 

corpus 

corpus 

corpore 

corpora 

corporum 

corporibus 

corpora 

corpora 



consulibus leonibus virginibus nominibus corporibus 
In like manner are declined — 

pater, patris (m.), father. arbor (os), oris (f.), tree. 

ebur, oris (n.), ivory. honor (os), oris (m.), honor. 

opus, eris (n.), work. aequor, oris (n.), plain. 

The following apparent liquid-stems have the genitive plural in 
ium, and are to be classed with i-stems : — imber, li7iter, titer, 
venter; with the monosyllables fur, gits, lar, mas, mils, [ren] ; 
also vires (from vis : see 6i). 

3. — Vowel-Stems. 

51. Vowel-stems of the Third Declension end in i (as 
of tnrris, turri- ; mare, mart-). The nominative, except 
in neuters, is formed by adding s to the stem. 

a. Thirty-five nouns change l to e in the nominative. 2 

1 These stems originally ended in s. (See Note 3, page 19.) 

2 These are acindces, aedes, alces, caedes, cautes, clddes, comfidges, contdges, 
crates, fames, feles, fides, Idbes, hies, meles, moles, nubes, palumbes, proles, pro- 
pages, pilbes, sedes, sepes, sordes, strdges, strues, subfiles, sudes, tabes, torques, 
tudes, vdtes, vehes, vepres, verres (aedes has also nom. is). 



22 



Etymology : Declension of Nouns. 



b. The nominative of a few stems in bri- and tri- does not add s, 
but loses i, inserting e before r : viz., imber. linter, titer, venter (54). 

c. The nominative of neuters is the same as the stem, with the 
change of 1- to e- (as in mare). But, when i is preceded by al or 
ar, the e is lost, as in animal (53. b). 1 

52. Nouns of this class are inflected as follows : — 



Sing. 


thirst (f.). 


tower (f.). 


cloud (f.). 


sea (n.). 


animal (n.). 


Nom. 


sitis 


turris 


nubes 


mare 


animal 


Gen. 


sitis 


turris 


nubis 


maris 


animalis 


DAT. 


siti 


turri 


niibi 


marl 


animal! 


Ace. 


sitim 


turrem (im) 


nubem 


mare 


animal 


Voc. 


sitis 


turris 


nubes 


mare 


animal 


Abl. 


siti 


turre (1) 


nube 


marl (e) 


animal! 


Plur. 












Nom. 




turres 


nubes 


maria 


animalia 


Gen. 




turrium 


nubium 


marium 


animalium 


DAT. 




turribus 


niibibus 


maribus 


animalibus 


Ace. 




turres (is) 


nubes (is) 


maria 


animalia 


Voc. 




turres 


nubes 


maria 


animalia 


Abl. 




turribus 


niibibus 


maribus 


animalibus 



53. Nouns of this class include the following : — 

a. All nouns of the Third Declension having the same number 
of syllables in the nominative and genitive (parisyllabic), except- 
ing pater, mater, f rater, accipiter. They end in the nominative in 
is or es (mostly feminine), e (neuter). 

b. Neuters in al and ar (originally adjectives in alis, aris), which 
have lost a final e. 2 

54. Many nouns with apparently consonant-stems 
were originally i-stems. 3 These are — 



1 Except angurdle, colldre, focdle, mare, navdle, pe?ietrdlc, scutdlc, tibiale ; 
alvedre, capilldre, cochleare. 

2 These are animal, bacchanal, bidental, capital, cervical, cubital, lupercal, 
minutal, puteal, quadra?ital, toral, tribfmal, vectigal ; calcar, cochlear, exemplar, 
lacil?tar, laquear, lucar, luminar, lupanar, palear, puhnnar, torcidar ; with 
the plurals dentalia, frontalia, genitalia, rdmalia, sponsalia ; altaria, plantaria, 
specidaria, tdlaria. 

8 The i-declension was confused even to the Romans themselves, nor was it 
stable at all periods of the language, the early language having i-forms which 
afterwards disappeared. There was a tendency in nouns to lose the i-forms, in 
adjectives to gain them. The accusative form (im) was most thoroughly lost, 
next the ablative (z), next the nominative (is); while the genitive and accusative 
plural («/;«, Is) were retained in almost all. 



Third Declension : Vowel- Stems. 



23 



Nom. 


urbs 


nox 


Gen. 


urbis 


noctis 


DAT. 


urbl 


nocti 


Acc. 


urbem 


noctem 


Voc. 


urbs 


nox 


Abl. 


urbe 


nocte 


Plur. 






Nom. 


urbes 


noctes 


Gen. 


urbium 


noctium 


DAT. 


urbibus 


noctibus 



mouse (m.). 


shower (m.). 


mus 


imber 


muris 


imbris 


muri 


imbri 


murem 


imbrem 


mus 


imber 


mure 


imbre (1) 


mure3 


imbres 


murium 


imbrium 


muribus 


imbribus 



1. Monosyllables with stem ending in two consonants : as, urbs, 
nions (montis), nox (noctis), arxj together with imber, linter, 
titer, venter (51. b). 

2. Stems in tat- (as ctvitas, -aiis)} or in d or t preceded by 
a consonant (including participles used as nouns) ; the mono- 
syllables dos, \_faux~\, fur, glis, Its, mas, mils, nix, [ren], strix, vis. 

3. Nouns denoting birth or abode, having stems in at-, it-, origi- 
nally adjectives (as Arplnas, dtis), with Penates and Opttmates. 

They are thus declined : — 

Sing, city (f.). night (f.). age (f.). 

aetas 

aetatis 

aetati 

aetatem 

aetas 

aetate 

aetates 

aetatium ( 

aetatibus 

Acc. urbes (13) noctes (is) aetates (is) mures (is) imbres (13) 
Voc. urbes noct§3 aetates mures imbres 

Abl. urbibus noctibus aetatibus muribus imbribus 

N.B. — The declension of these nouns in the singular differs in 
no respect from that of consonant-stems, and in the plural in no 
respect from that of vowel-stems. 

55. Vowel-stems show the i of the stem in the follow- 
ing forms : — 

a. All have the genitive plural in -ium (but see 59). 

b. All neuters have the nom. and acc. plural in -ia; 

c. The accusative plural (m. or f.) is often written -is; 

d. The accusative singular (m. or f.) of a few ends in -im (56) ; 

e. The ablative singular of all neuters, and of many masculines 
and feminines, ends in -1 (see 57). 

4. — Case Forms. 

56. The regular form of the accusative singular (m. or 
f.) would be im : as of sitis, sitim ; but in most nouns 
this is changed to em. 



1 These, however, more commonly have the genitive plural in um. 



§11 



24 Etymology : Declension of Nouns. 

a. The accusative in im is found exclusively — 

1. In Greek nouns and names of rivers ; 

2. In buris, cucumis, rdvis, sitis, tussis, vis j 

3. In adverbs in tim (being accusative of nouns in tis), as 
par tint j and in amussim. 

b. The accusative in im is sometimes found in febris, restis, 
turris, securis, sementis, and (in a few passages) in many other words. 

57. The regular form of the ablative singular would be 
i : as of sitis, siti ; but in most nouns this is changed to e. 

a. The ablative in 1 is found exclusively — 

1. In nouns having the accusative in im (56) ; also securis; 

2. In the following adjectives used as nouns : aequalis, anndlis, 
aqudlis, consuldris, gentilis, moldris, prtinipilaris, irib tills j 

3. In neuters (nominative in e, al, ar) : except baccar, jubar, 
and sometimes (in verse) mare, rete. 

b. The ablative in i is sometimes found — 

1. In avis, clavis, febris, finis, ignis, x imber, navis, ovis, 
pelvis, sementis, strigilis, turris. 

2. In the following adjectives used as nouns : affinis, bipennis, 
candlis, familidris, natdlis, rivdlis, sapiens, tfirwnis, vocdlis. 

c. The ablative of fames is always fame. The defective 7nane 
has sometimes ablative mani (probably locative). 

d. Most names of towns in e, — as Praeneste, Caere, — and the 
mountain Soracte, have the ablative in e. 

58. The regular nominative plural would be is, but this is rarely 
found. The regular accusative is is common, but not exclusively 
used in any word. An old form for both cases is eis (diphthong). 

59. The following have um (not ium) in the genitive plural : 
canis, juvenis (original consonant-stems) ; ambages, volucris ; also 
(sometimes) apis, caedes, clddes, mensis, sides, strues, suboles, vdtes, 
and (very rarely) patrials in as, dtis ; is, itis. 

5. — Peculiar Forms. 

60. In many nouns the stem is variously modified in 

the nominative or other cases. Thus — 

a. The vowel-stems gru-, su-, add s in the nominative, and are 
inflected like mute-stems : grus has also a nominative gruis ; sus 
has both suibus and subus in the dative and ablative plural. 

1 Always aquct et igni interdici. 



Third Declension : Greek Forms, 



25 



b. In bov- (bou-) the diphthong ou becomes (dps, bovis). 
In nav- (nau-) an i is added (navis, is). In Jov- (==Zevs) the 

diphthong becomes u in Ju-piter (pater), gen. Jovis, &c. 

c. In iter, iti7ieris (n.), jecur, jecinoris (n.), sup el lex, supellec- 
tilis (f.), the nominative has been formed from a shorter stem ; so 
that these words show a combination of two distinct forms. The 
shorter form is found in jecor-is. 

d. Of the many original s-stems, only vas, vasis (n. pi. vasa, 
drum), retains its proper form in the nominative (see 48. d). 

61. Some peculiar forms are thus declined — 



Sing. 




ox, c. 


old man, M 


. flesh, f. 


bone, N. 


force, f. 


swine, c. 


N., V. 




bos 


senex 


caro 


OS 


VIS 


sus 


Gen. 




bdvis 


senis 


carnis 


ossis 


VIS (rare) 


suis 


Dat. 




bovi 


sen! 


carni 


ossi 





sui 


Ace 




bovem 


senem 


earnem 


OS 


vim 


suem 


Abl. 




bove 


sene 


carne 


osse 


VI 


sue 


Plur. 




cattle. 








strength. 




N.,A. 


.-V. 


boves 


senes 


carnes 


ossa 


vires 


sues 


Gen. 




bourn 


senum 


carnium 


ossium 


virium 


suum 


Dat., 


Abl 


bobus 


senibus 


earnibus 


ossibus viribus 


siibus 






(bubus) 










(suibus) 



62. The Locative form for nouns of the third declension ends 
indifferently like the dative or ablative : as, ruri, in the country j 
Carthagini or Carthagine, at Carthage j Trallibus, at Tralles. 
The singular form in e appears to have been first used in poetry. 

6. — Greek Forms. 

63. Many nouns originally Greek — mostly proper 
names — retain Greek forms of inflection. 

a. Stems in in- (i long) : delphmus, 1 (m.), has also the form 
delphin, mis; Salamis, is (f.), has ace. Salamina. Phorcys has 
gen. Phorcyos and Phorcydos. 

b. Most stems in id- (nom. is) often have also the forms of 
i-stems : as, tigris, idis (idos) or is ; ace. idem (ida) or im (in) ; 
abl. ide or i. But many, including most feminine proper names, 
have ace. idem (ida), abl. ide, — not im and i. (These follow the 
forms in Greek, which depend on the place of the accent.) 

c. Stems in on- sometimes retain 11 : as, Agamemnon (or 
Agamemno), onis, accusative ona. 

d. Stems in ont- form the nom. in on : as, horizon, Xenophon ; 
but a few are occasionally latinized into on- (nominative o) : as, 
Draco, onis. 



26 



Etymology : Declension of Nouns. 



e. Stems in ant-, ent-, have nom. in as, is : as, adamas, antis; 
Simois, entis. So a few in unt- (contracted from oent-) have us ; 
as, Trapezus, untis. Occasionally the Latin form of nominative is 
also found : as, Atlans, elephans. 

f. Case Forms. — Many Greek nouns (especially in the poets) 
have gen. 6s, ace. a ; plur. nom. es, ace. as : as, aer, aether, crater, 
her5s (ois), lampas (adis or ados), lynx (cis or cos), nais (idos), 
Orpheus (eos : see 43). 

g. A few in ys have ace. yn, voc. y ; abl. ye : as, chelys, yn, y; 
Capys, yos, yi, yn, y, ye. 

h. Several feminine names in o have gen. sing, us, all the other 
cases ending in o ; they may also have regular forms : as, Dido, 
gen. Didonis or Didus ; dat. Didoni or Dido, &c. 

64. Some of these forms are seen in the following 
examples : — 



N., V. 

Gen. 

Dat. 

Ace. 

Abl. 

Plur. 

N. V. 

Gen. 



hero, M. 

heros 

herois 

heroi 

heroa 

heroe 



torch, f. 

lampas 

lamp ados 

lampadi 

lampada 

lampade 



base, f. 

basis 

baseos 

basi 

basin 

basi 

bases 



tiger, c. 
tigris 

tigris (idos) 
tigri 

tigrin (ida) 
tigri (ide) 

tigres 



lyre, f. 
chelys 



naiad, F. 
nais 

naidos 

naicii 

naida chelyn 
naide V. chely 



basium(eon)tigrium 
tigribus 



naides 

naidum 

naidibus 



heroes lampades 

heroum lampadum 
D,Abl. heroisin larapadibus basibus 
Ace. heroas lampadas basis (eis) tigris idas) naidas 

PROPER NAMES. 

Simois Capys 

Simoentis Capyos 



Nom. 


Atlas 


Dido 


Gen. 


Atlantis 


Didonis (us 


Dat. 


Atlanti 


Didoni (6) 


Ace. 


Atlanta 


Didonem(o) 


Voc. 


Atlas 


Dido 


Abl. 


Atlante 


Didone (6) 



Daphnis 

Daphnidis 

Daphnidi 

Daphnim (in) 

Daphni 

Daphni 



Simoenti Capyi 

Simoenta Capyn 

Simois Capy 

Simoente Capye 

Note. — The regular Latin forms can be used for most of the above. 
7. — Rules of Gender. 

65. The following are general Rules of Gender of 
nouns of the third declension, classed according to the 
termination of the nomitiative} 



1 Rules of Gender are mostly only rules of memory, as there is no necessary 
connection between the form and gender. But the preference of masculine and 
feminine (especially feminine) for long vowels cannot be accidental (compare long 
a of 1st declension). Some affixes also prefer one or another gender: as, tor 
(originally tar), masculine; TI, feminine; men (originally man), neuter. 



Third Declension : Rules of Gender. 27 

a. Masculine endings are o, or, os, er, es (gen. idis, itis). 

b. Feminine endings are as (atis), es (is), is, ys, x, s (following 
a consonant) ; also, do, go (inis), io (abstract and collective), and 
us (udis, utis). 

c. Neuter endings are a, e, i, y ; c, 1, t ; men (minis) ; ar, ur, 
Us (eris, oris). 

66. The following are general Rules of Gender of 
nouns of the third declension, classed according to their 
stems. 

a. Vowel Stems. — Stems in i-, having s in the nominative, are 
Feminine, except those mentioned below (67, a). Those having 
nominative in e, or which drop the e, are neuter. 

b. Liquid Stems. — Stems in 1- are Masculine, except sil,fel, 
mel, and sometimes sal (n.). Those in mm- are Neuter, except 
homo, nemo, fldme7i (m.). Others in in- are Masculine, except 
pollen, unguen (n.). Those in en- are Masculine. Those in 
din-, gin-, ion- (abstract and collective) are Feminine. Others in 
on-, with cardo, margo, ordo, unto, senio, quaternio, are* Mascu- 
line. Those in r preceded by a short vowel are Neuter, except 
about 30 given below. Those in r- preceded* by a long vowel are 
Masculine, except soror, uxor, glos, tellies, F. ; criis, jits, pits, rus, 
tils (in which the long vowel is due to contraction), n. 

c. Labial Stems (no neuters). — Stems in b and m are Femin- 
ine, except chalybs. Those in p are chiefly Masculine (excep- 
tions below). 

d. Lingual Stems. — Stems in ad-, ed- id-, nd-, ud-, aud-, are 
Feminine, except droinas, pes, quadrupes, obses, praeses, lapis (m.). 
Those in at-, ut-, are Feminine, except patrials (as Arplnas), with 
penates and optzmdtesfa.). Those in ed-, it-, are Masculine, except 
merces and quies with its compounds (f.). Those in et-, it-, are Mas- 
culine, except abies, merges, seges, teges (f.), and those which are 
Common from signification. Those in at- are Neuter ; those in 
nt- various (see List) ; those in It-, rt-, Feminine. (For a few 
isolated forms, see List.) 

e. Palatal Stems. — Stems in c preceded by a consonant or 
long vowel are Feminine, except calx, decunx, phoenix, storax, 
vervex, m. Those in c preceded by a short vowel are chiefly Mas- 
culine (for exceptions, see List) ; those in g, Masculine, except 
[frux], lex, phalanx, syrinx j also nix, nivis (f.) . 



28 Etymolpgy : Declension of Nouns. 

67. The following are the Forms of Inflection of 
nouns of the Third Declension, classed according to 
their Stems : — 

a. VOWEL-STEMS. 

es, is:— about 35 nouns (see list 51. a), Feminine, except tudes, 

vdtes, verres, M. 
is, is : — about 100 nouns, chiefly Feminine. 

Exc. — aedilis -, amnis , anguis ; c, annalis, antes, assis, axis, 
dun's, calk's, c, canalis, c, cam's, c, cassis, caulis, civis, C, climis, 
C, collis, crinis, c, ensis, fastis, finis, c, follis, funis, c, fustis, 
hostis, a, ignis, juvenis, a, lactes a, lares, ?nanes (pi.), mensis, 
moldris, ndtdlis, orbis, pdnis, pedis, a, piscis, postis, sentis, a, 
soddlis, testis, a, torris, unguis, vectis, vepres, a (pi.), vermis^ M. 
[Those marked c. are sometimes feminine ; the rest are masculine.] 
e, is : — upwards of 20 nouns, all Neuter, 
al, alis ; ar, aris : — 24 neuter, with several used only in the plural 

(see list, 53. b : for those in ar, aris, see Liquid Stems). 
er, ris : — imber, linter, uter, venter, — all M. except linter, which is 

commonly f. [For other apparent consonant-stems see below.] 
Peculiar : — grus, grids, f. ; rhus, rhois (ace. rhutri), m. ; sus, 
suis, c. ; herds, herois, M. ; misy, yos, F. ; oxys, yos, f. ; cinnabdri, 
gummi, sinapi (indecl.), N. ; chelys, yn, y, F. ; bos, bovis, c. 

b. LIQUID-STEMS. 

1, lis : — 9 nouns, Masculine, except sil, and (sometimes) sal, N. 

en, enis : — [ren\ splenj hymen (em's), M. 

en, mis : — 10 nouns, M., except pollen, unguen, N. 

men, minis (verbal) : — about 60 nouns, N. ; but fldmen, M. 

on, onis (Greek) : — canoii, daemon, gno?Jion, m. ; — aedon, alcyon, 

ancoji, sindon, F. 
o, onis : — about 70 nouns, all Masculine ; with many family 

names, as Cicero. 
io, ionis (material objects, &c.) : — about 30 nouns, Masculine, 
io, ionis (abstract and collective): — upwards of 180, Feminine, 

including many rare verbal abstracts. 
o, mis : — homo, turbo, nemo, Apollo, M. 

do, dinis : — nearly 50 nouns, Feminine except cardo, ordo, M. 
go, ginis : — about 40 nouns, Feminine ; with 7nargo, M. or F. 
ar, aris : — baccar, jubar, nectar, N. ; lar, salar, M. 
er, ris : — accipiter, frdier, pater, M., mater, F. 
er, eris (Greek) : — crater, halter, prester, M., ver, n. 



Third Declension : Forms of Inflection. 29 

er, eris : — acipenser,(aer), aether, agger, anser, asser, aster, cancer, 
career, later, passer, vesper, vomer, M. ; — mulier, f. ; — acer, 
cadaver, cicer, laver, papaver, piper, siler, siser, suber, tuber, 
tuber, fiber, verber, N. 

is, eris : — cinis, cucumis, pulvis, vd7nis, M. 

or (os), oris : — nearly 70 nouns (besides many denoting the 
Agent, formed upon verb-stems), all m., except soror, uxor, f. 

or, oris : — castor, rhetor, M. ; arbor, F. ; ador, aequor, marmor, N. 

os, oris : —flos, mos, ros, M. ; glos, F. ; os, N. 

iir, 5ris : — ebur, femur, jecur, robur (us), n. 

iir, uris : — 9 Masculine ; with fulgur, ?nur7nur, sulfur, N. 

us, eris : — 20 Neuter ; also, Vemis, F. 

us, 6ris : — 14 nouns, Neuter, except lepus, M. 

us, uris : — mus, m. ; tellus, F. ; crus,jus, pus, rus, tus, N. 

Peculiar : — delphin, inisj fur, furisj sanguis (en), inisj 

senex, senis, M.y caro, carnis, F. ; aes, aerisj far, f arris j fel,fel- 

lis; met, 7nellis j iter, itineris ; jecur, jecinoris (jecoris), N. ; glis, 

gllris, M. 

C. LABIAL. 

bs, bis : — chalybs, M. ; plebs, trabs, urbs, F. ; scrobs, c. scobs. 
ms, mis : — hiems (often written hiemps), F. 

ps, pis : — 15 nouns, Masculine, except [daps], merops, ops, stips, 
F. ; forceps, siirps, c. 

d. LINGUAL. 

as, adis (Greek) : — 14 nouns, Feminine, except dromas, vas, M. 
es, edis : — cupes, heres, praes, M. ; 7nerces, F. 
es, edis : — pes, quadrupes, M. ; C077ipes, F. 
es, idis : — obses, praeses, c. 

is, Idis : — nearly 40 nouns (mostly Greek), F. ; lapis, M. 
6s, odis : — custos, c. 

6s, otis : — nepos, m. ; cos, dos, F. ; sacerdos, c. 
us, udis : — i7tcus,palus, subscus : with fraus, laus,pecus (udis), F. 
a, atis (Greek) : — nearly 20 nouns, Neuter. 

as, atis : — about 20 (besides derivatives), f. ; also, anas (atis), c. 
es, etis : — celes, lebes, 7nag7ies, M. ; quies, requies, inquies, F. 
es, etis : — aries, paries, M. ; abies, seges, teges, F. ; interpres, c. 
es, itis : — about 20 nouns, Masculine or Common. 
us, utis : — juve7ttus, salus, senectus, servitus, virtus, F. 
ns, ndis : — frons, glans, juglans, F. 

ns, ntis : — nearly 20 (besides many participles used as nouns), 
Common ; dens,fons, 7nons,pons, m. ; frons, gens, le7is, 7ne7is, f. 



30 Etymology : Declension of Nouns. 

rs, rtis (originally i-stems) : — ars, cohors,fors, mors, sors, F. 
ys, ydis; s, ntis (Greek) \-chlamys, F. ; Atlas, antis, M. 

Peculiar : — as, assis, m. ; lis, litis; nox, noctis j puis, pultis, 
F. ; caput, itisj cor, cordis; hepar, atis ; os, ossis j vas, vasis, N. ; 
also, compounds of -pus, -podis, m., Gr. for pes (foot). 

e. PALATAL. 
ax, acis : anthrax, corax, frax (pi), panax, scolopax, M. ; fax, 

sty rax {s tor ax), f. 
ax, acis : — cnodax, cordax, llmax, thorax, M. ; pax, F. 
ex, ecis : — alex, m. or F. ; vervex, m. 
ex, icis : — upwards of 40 nouns, Masculine, except carex, forfex, 

ilex, imbrex, nex (necis), pellex, F. 
ix, icis : — appe7idix, coxendix, filix, fornix, larix, salix, struix, 

varix, F. 
ix, icis : — about 30 nouns, Feminine ; besides many in trix, regular 

feminines of nouns of agency in tor. 
ox, ocis : — celox, vox, F. 
ux, ucis : — dux, c. ; crux, nux, F. 
ux, ucis : — balux, lux, F. 

x, cis : — arx, calx,falx, lynx, merx (def.), F. ; calyx, calx, M. 
x, gis : — conjux (nx), grex, remcx, rex, m. or c. ; frux (def.), lex, 

phalanx, f., with a few rare names of animals. 
Other nouns in x are nix, nivis j nox, noctis j supellex, ectilis, F. ; 

onyx, ychis, M. 



FOURTH DECLENSION. 

Note. — The Stem of nouns of the Fourth Declension ends in 
u. This is usually weakened to i before -bus. Masculine and 
feminine nouns form the nominative by adding s ; neuters have 
for nominative the simple stem, but with u (long). 

68. Nouns of the Fourth Declension are declined as 
follows : — 

Sing. 

Nom. 
Gen. 
Dat. 
Ace. 
Voc. 
Abl. 



hand (f.). 


lake (m.). 


knee (n.). 


manus 


lacus 


genu 


manus 


laciis 


genii (us) 


manui 


lacui 


genu 


manum 


lacum 


genu 


manus 


lacus 


genu 


manu 


lacii 


genii 



Fourth Declension. 



31 



Plur. 








Nom. 


manus 


lacus 


genua 


Gen. 


manuum 


lacuum 


genuum 


DAT. 


manibus 


lacubus 


genibus 


Acc. 


manus 


lacus 


genua 


Voc. 


manus 


lacus 


genua 


Abl. 


manibus 


lacubus 


genibus 



Note. — The Genitive singular is contracted from the old form 
in uis. The Dative Singular is also found contracted to u. 

69. Gender. — a. Most nouns in us are Masculine. The 
following are Feminine : — acus, anus, colus, domus, idus (pl.)> 
manus, nurus, portions, quinquatrus, socrus, tribus, with a few 
names of plants and trees. Also, rarely, arcus, penus, species. 

b. The only neuters are cornu, genu, pecu (def.), veru. 1 

70. Case-Forms. —#. A genitive in os (an earlier form) is 
sometimes found : as, senatuos j and an old (irregular) genitive in 
i is used by some writers. 

b. The nominative plural has rarely the form uus. 

c. The genitive plural is sometimes contracted into urn. 

d. The following retain the regular dative and ablative plural 
in iibus : artus, partus, portus, tribus, veruj also dissyllables in 
-cus, as lacus (but sometimes portibus, veribus). 

e. Most names of plants, and colus, distaff, have also forms of 
the second declension. 

f. Domus, house, has two stems, ending in u and o, and is 
declined as follows : 2 — 

SINGULAR. 

domus 

domus (domi, loc.) 

domui (domo) 



Nom. 
Gen. 

DAT. 

Acc. 
Voc. 
Abl. 



PLURAL. 

domus 

domuum (domorum) 

domibus 

domos (domus) 

domus 

domibus 



domum 
domus 
domo (domu) 

71. Most nouns of the fourth declension are formed from verb- 
stems, with the suffix -tus (sus) : as, cantus, song, from cano, 
sing; casus (for cad-tus), chance, from cado, fall; exsulatus, 
exile, from exsulo, to be an exile (exsul). Many are formed 
either from verb-stems not in use, or by false analogy : as, con- 
suldtus, senatus, incestus. 



1 Some others are mentioned by grammarians, and the form ossua, as from 
ossu, occurs in inscriptions. 

2 The forms in parenthesis are less common. The form domi is regularly 
locative, genitive only in Plautus ; domiii is also locative ; domorum is poetic. 



32 Etymology: Decle?tsion of Nouns. 

a. The Supines of verbs are the accusative and ablative (or 
dative, perhaps both) of derivatives in tus (sus) : as, audltum, 
memoratu. 

b. Of many only the ablative is used as a noun : as, jussu 
(meo), by my command j so injussu (populi), without the 

people's order. Of some only the dative : as, memoratui, divisui. 



FIFTH DECLENSION. 

Note. — The Stem of nouns of the Fifth Declension ends in e, 
which appears in all the cases. The nominative is formed from 
the stem by adding s. 

72. Nouns of the Fifth Declension are thus de- 
clined : — 





sing, thing 1 


F.) PLUR. 


sing, day (m 


.) PLUR. 


faith (f.) 


Nom. 


res 


res 


dies 


dies 


fides 


Gen. 


rei 1 


rerum 


die! (die) 


dierum 


fidei 


DAT. 


rei 


rebus 


die! (die) 


diebus 


fidei 


Ace. 


rem 


res 


diem 


dies 


fidem 


Voc. 


res 


res 


dies 


dies 


fides 


Abl. 


re 


rebus 


die 


diebus 


fide 



73. Gender. — All nouns of this declension are feminine, ex- 
cept dies (usually m.), and meridies (m.). Dies is sometimes 
feminine in the singular, especially in phrases indicating a fixed 
time, or time in general : as, longa dies, constitute diej also in the 
poets : as, pulcra dies. 

74. Case-Forms. — a. The genitive singular anciently ended in 
es (cf. as of first declension) ; and ei was sometimes contracted 
into i or e, as in dii (JEn. i. 6j6), and in the phrase plebi-scititm 
(Fr. plebiscite). An old dative in I or e also occurs. 

b. Several nouns of the fifth declension have also forms of the 
first, of which this is only a variety : as, 7izateria, -ies, saevitia, -ics. 2 
The genitive and dative in ei are rarely found in these words. 



1 The e is usually shortened in the gen. and dat. singular in Jides, s/>es, res. 

2 Nouns in ies (except dies) are original A-stems. The others are probably 
(excepting res) corrupted s-stems, like moles, molcs-tus ; dies, dii ir mis ; sfies, 
spero. Some vary between this and the third declension : as, rcquics, saties 
(satiaSy dtis), plebes (pleos, plebis), fame (fames, is) ; with others, as saties (for 
satietas), &c. 



Fifth Declension ; Defective Nouns. 33 

c. The Locative form of this declension is represented by -e, as 
in hodie, to-day j perendie, day - after-to-morrow j die quarto 
(antiquated quarti), the fourth day j pridie, the day before. 

d. The only nouns of this declension complete in all their 
parts are dies and res. Most want the plural, which is, how- 
ever, found in the nominative and accusative in the following : 
acies, effigies, eluvies, fades, glades, series, species, spes. 1 

Defective Nouns. 

75. Some nouns are ordinarily found in the Singular 
number only. These are — 

1. Proper names : as, Caesar, Cozsar j Gallia, Gaul. 

2. Names of things not counted, but reckoned in mass (con- 
tinud) : as, aurum, gold; far, corn; aer, air. 

3. Abstract nouns : as, ambitio, ambition j fortitudo, courage j 
calor, heat. 

But many of these can be used in the plural in some 
other sense. Thus — 

a. A proper name may be applied to two or more persons or 
places, and so becomes strictly common : as, duodecim Caesares, 
the twelve Ccesars j Galliae, the two Gauls (Cis- and Trans-alpine) ; 
Cas tores, Castor and Pollux j Joves, images of Jupiter. 

b. Particular objects or kinds of a thing may be denoted : as, 
aera, brazen utensils; nives, snow-flakes j calores, frigora, times 
of heat and cold. 

c. The plural of Abstract nouns denotes occasions or instances 
of the quality, or the like : as, quaedam excellentiae, some cases 
of superiority j otia, periods of rest. 

76. Some are commonly found only in the Plural : — 

1. Many proper names, including names of Festivals and 
Games : as, Bacchanalia, festival of Bacchus j Quinquatrus, fes- 
tival of Minerva j ludi Romani, the Roman Games. 

2. Names of Classes : as, optimates, the tipper classes j ma- 
jores, ancestors ; liberi, children ; penates, household gods. 

3. Words plural from signification : as, arma, weapons j artus, 
joints j divitiae, riches j scalae, stairs j valvae, folding-doors j 
fores, door-way. 



1 The forms facierum, specierum, speciebus, sfierum, sfiebus, are cited ; also 
speres, speribus. 

3 



34 Etymology : Declension of Nouns. 

These often have a corresponding singular in some 
form or other, as nouns or adjectives: — 

a. As nouns, to denote a single object : as, Bacchanal, a spot 
sacred to Bacchus j optimas, an aristocrat. 

b. As adjectives : as, Cato Major, Cato the Elder. 

c. In a sense rare or obsolete : as scala, a ladder; valva, 
a door j artus, a joint (Lucan). 

77. The following are defective in Case-Forms : — 

1. Indeclinable nouns : fas, nefds, instar, necesse, nihil, opus 
("need"), secus. 

2. Nouns found in one case only {monoptotes) : glos (f.), 
infitids (f.), mane (n. nom., ace, and abl.), nauci (n.), pondo 
(n.), suppetids (f.), diets (gen.). 

3. In two cases only {diptotes) : astus, ti (m.), dicam, as (f.), 
for as, is (F.),fors, forte (f.), spontis, e (f.), venui, um (m.). 

4. In three cases {triptotes) : grdtiae, as, is (f.), i77ipetus, um, 
u (M.),jugera, um, ibus (n.), lues, em, e (f.). 

5. The following are defective only in the singular : ambdge 
(f.), fauce (f.), obice (m. or f., nom. rare), cassem, e (m.), precem, 
i, e (f.), sordem, e (f.), opis, em, e (dat. rare), dapis, i, em, e 
(f., nom. rare), dicionis, i, em, e (F.),friigis, i, em, e (f.). 

6. The following are defective in the plural : jilra, riira (n. nom. 
and ace.) ; sentis, einj es, ibus (m.), vicis, em, ej is, ibus (f.). Cor, 
cos,fax,faex, lux, nex, os, pax, praes, ros, sal, sol, tils, vas, ver, 
are not found in the genitive plural (see also 74. d; 75). 
Some other forms of these words are rarely found. 

Variable Nouns. 

78. Some nouns have two or more forms of Declen- 
sion {Jieteroclites)} These are — 

Coins, with many names of plants (f. of second or fourth 
declension) ; femur, oris, or mis (n.) ; jugeru?n, i (n.), abl. e, pi. 
a, umj Mulciber, beri, or beris (m.) ; munus, eris (n.) ; pubes, 
eris, em, e (m.) ; penus, i, or oids (n.) ; saevitia, ae ; -ies, ie7n; 
-itiido, inis (f.) ; sequester, tri, or tris ; with many in ia or ies 
(see 74. b), and a few other rare forms. 






1 These variations often result from the confusion of two stems from the same 
root: as, domi (c-stem), doimii (z^-stem). Compare such words as iter, itineris ; 
jecur,jecoris, ox j editor is. The gender is an accidental peculiarity. 



Variable Nouns. 



35 



79. Some nouns are found of more than one Gender 
{heterogeneous) . 

a. The following have a masculine form in us and a neuter in 
urn : — balteus, caseus, clipeus, collum, jugulum, pileus, tergzim, 
vallum, with many others of rare occurrence. 

b. The following have the plural in a different gender from the 
singular : — balneum (n.), balneae (f.) ; caelum (n.), caelos (m. ace.) 
carbasus (f.), carbasa, orum (n.), delictum (n.), deliciae (f.) 
epitlum (n.), epulae (n.) ; frenum (n.), freni (m. or frena, n.) 
jocus (m.),joca (n. or joci, M.) ; rastrum (n.), rastri (m.) ; /<?£z^y 
(m.), /^<3: (n. : /c7«, M., is usually /^zVj or detached spots). 

c. Many nouns vary in meaning as they are found in " the 
singular or plural : as, 

aedes, ium. house. 

aquae, a watering-place. 

auxilia, auxiliaries . 

bona, property. 

carceres, barriers (of race-course). 

castra, ca7np. 

codicilli, tablets. 



aedes, is (f.), te7nplej 
aqua (f.), water j 
auxilium (n.), help; 
bonum (n.), a good; 
career (m.), dungeon; 
castrum (N.),fort; 
codicillus (m.), bit of wood; 



comitium (n .), place of assembly ; comitia, a political assembly. 



copia (f.), plenty; 
fides (f.), harp- string; 
finis (m.), end; 
fortuna (f .), fortune ; 
gratia (f.), favor; 
hortus (m.), a garden; 
impedimentum (n.), hinderance ; 
littera (f.), letter (of alphabet) ; 
locus (m.), place [pi. loca (n.)] ; 

ludus (m.), sport; 

natalis (m.), birthday ; 

opera (f.), task; 

opis (f. gen.), help ; 

pars (f.), apart; 

plaga (f.), region [plaga, blow] ; 

rostrum (n.), beak of a ship; 

sal (m. or N.), salt; 

tabella (f.), tablet; 



copiae, troops. 
fides, lyre. 

fines, bounds, territories. 
fortiinae, possessions. 
gratiae, thanks. 
horti, pleasure-grounds. 
impedimenta, baggage. 
litterae, epistle. 

loci, passages in books. (In early 
writers this is the regular plur.). 
ludi, public games. 
natales, descent. 

operae, day-laborers ("hands "). 
opes, resources, wealth. 
partes, part (on the stage), party. 
plagae, s?iares. 
rostra, speakers platform. 
sales, witticis7ns. 
tabellae, documents. 



36 Etymology: Proper Names. 

sestertius (m.) means the sum of 2^ asses, = about 5 cents. 
sestertium (n.) means the sum of 1000 sestertii, = about $50. 
decies sestertium (sc. centena millid) means the sum of 1000 
sestertia, = $50,000 (nearly). 

d. Sometimes a noun in combination with an adjective takes a 
special signification, both parts being regularly inflected : as, jus- 
jurandum, jurisjurandi, oathj respublica, reipublicae, common- 
wealth. 

Proper Names. 

80. A Roman had regularly three names, denoting 
the person, the gens, and the family. 

a. Thus, in the name Marcus Tullius Cicero, we have Marcus, 
the pramomen, or personal name ; Tullius, the nomen (properly 
an adjective), i.e. the name of the Gens, or house, whose original 
head was Tullus ; Cicero, the cognomen, or family name, often 
in its origin a nickname, — in this case from cicer, a vetch, or 
small pea. 

b. A fourth or fifth name, called the agnomen, was sometimes 
given. Thus the complete name of Scipio the Younger was 
Publhis Cornelius Scipio Africanus jEmilianus j Africdnus, from 
his exploits in Africa ; jEi7iilianus, as adopted from the ^milian 
gens. 

c. Women had no personal names, but were known only by that 
of their Gens. Thus, the wife of Cicero was Terentia, and his 
daughter Tullia. A younger sister would have been called Tullia 
secunda or minor, and so on. 

d. The commonest praenomens are thus abbreviated : — 

A. Aulus. L. Lucius. 0. Ouintus. 

C. (G.) Gaius {Cams). M. Marcus. Ser. Servius. 
Cn. (Gn.) Gnaeus (Cneius). M\ Manius. Sex. Sextus. 

D. Decimus. Mam. Mamercus. Sp. Spurius. 
K. Kaeso. N. Numerius. T. Titus. 
App. Appius. P. Publius. Ti. Tiberius. 

e. A feminine praenomen is sometimes abbreviated with an 
inverted letter: as, 3 for Caia or Gaia. 



Inflection of Adjectives. 



37 



Chapter IV. — Adjectives. 

INFLECTION. 

Note. — Adjectives and Participles are in general formed and 
declined like Nouns, differing from nouns only in their use. In 
accordance with their use, they distinguish gender by different 
forms in the same word, corresponding with their nouns in gender, 
ntimber, and case. They are (i) of the First and Second Declen- 
sions, or (2) of the Third Declension. 1 

1. — First and Second Declensions. 

81. Adjectives of the first and second declensions 
(o-stems) have the feminine in a; they are declined like 
servus (m.), stella (f.), bellum (n.) : as, 

FEM. 

bona 

bonae 

bonae 

bonam 

bona 

bona 



NEUT. 

bonum,^^. 

boni 

bono 

bonum 

bonum 

bono 



bonae bona 

bonarum bonorum 

bonis bonis 

bonas bona 

bonae bona 

bonis bonis 

a. The masculine genitive of adjectives in ius ends in ii, and 
the vocative in ie ; not in i as in nouns : as, Lacedaemonius, ii, ie. 
But the possessive meus, my, has the vocative masculine mi. 

b. Adverbs are formed from adjectives of this form by changing 
the case-ending toe: as, valide, strongly (from validus) ; misere, 
wretchedly (from miser : see 82). 



king. 


MASC. 


Nom. 


bonus 


Gen. 


boni 


DAT. 


bono 


Ace. 


bonum 


Voc. 


bone 


Abl. 


bono 


Plur. 




Nom. 


boni 


Gen. 


bonorum 


DAT. 


bonis 


Ace. 


bonos 


Voc. 


boni 


Abl. 


bonis 



1 Most Latin adjectives and participles are either o-stems with the cor- 
responding feminine ^-sterns (originally a and a), or z-stems. Many, however, 
were originally stems in u or a consonant, which passed over, in all or most of 
their cases, into the z-declension, for which Latin had a special fondness. (Com- 
pare the endings es and is of the third declension with the Greek e? and a? ; navis 
(nominative) with the Greek vav<; ; /3paxv? with brevis ; comn with bicornis ; 
lingua with bilinguis ; cor, corde, cor da, with discors, -di, -dia, -diwn; suavis 
with rjSvs ; ferens, -entia, with <£epa)v, -ovra.) A few, which in other languages 
are nouns, retain the consonant-form : as, vetus = IT09. Comparatives also retain 
the consonant form in most of their cases. 



Miser, wretcJied. 




Niger, black. 


misera 


miserum 


niger 


nigra 


nigrum 


miserae 


miseri 


nigri 


nigrae 


nigri 


miserae 


miserS 


nigro 


nigrae 


nigro 


miseram 


raiserum 


nigrum 


nigram 


nigrum 


misera 


miserum 


niger 


nigra 


nigrum 


misera 


misero 


nigro 


nigra 


nigro 



38 Etymology : Adjectives. 

82. In adjectives of stems ending in ro- preceded by e or a 
consonant (also satur), the masculine nominative is formed like 
that of ro- stems of the second declension (cf. fitter, ager) : as, 

Sing. 

N. miser 

G. miseri 

D. misero 

Ac. miserum 

V. miser 

Ab. misero 

Plur. 

N. miseri miserae misera nigri nigrae nigra 

G. miserorum miserarum miserorum nigrorum nigrarum nigrorum 

D. miseris miseris miseris nigris nigris nigris 

Ac. miseros miseras misera nigros nigras nigra 

V. miseri miserae misera nigri nigrae nigra 

Ab. miseris miseris miseris nigris nigris nigris 

a. Stems in ero (as procerus), with morigerus, firoperus, 
posterns, have the regular nominative in us. 

b. Like miser are declined asper, gibber, lacer, liber, miser, 
firosfier (erus), satur (lira, urum), tener, with compounds of -fer and 
-ger; also, usually, dexter. In these the e belongs to the stem; 
but in dexter it is often syncopated : dextra, dextrum. 

c. Like niger are declined aeger, ater, creber, faber, glaber, 
integer, ludicer, macer, niger, noster, fiiger, pulcher, ruber, sacer, 
s caber, sinister, teter, vafer, v ester. 

d. The following feminines lack a masculine singular nomina- 
tive in classic use : — cetera, infera, fiostera, sufiera. They are 
rarely found in the singular except in certain phrases : as, fiostero 
die. A feminine ablative in o is found in a few Greek adjectives, 
as lecticd octophoro (Verr. v. 11). 

83. The following (o-stems) with their compounds have the 
genitive singular in lus and the dative in 1 in all the genders : — 
alius (n. aliud), other, totus, whole, alter, 1 other (of two), 
nullus, no7ie. ullus, any. neuter,- trius, neither. 

solus, alone. unus, one. liter,- trius, which (of two). 



1 The suffix ter, in alter, uter, neuter, is the same as the Greek comparative 
suffix -repo(g). The stem of alius appears in early Latin and in derivatives as 
ali-, in the forms alts, alid (for aliud), aliter, &c. The regular forms of the 
genitive and dative are also found in early writers. Instead of alius (genitive), 
alterius is commonly used, or (for the possessive) the adjective alienus. 

These words, in Greek and Sanskrit, are treated as pronouns, which accords 
with the pronominal forms of the genitive in ius, the dative in i, and the neuter 



Inflection of Adjectives. 



39 



#. Of these the singular is thus declined : — 





M. 


F. 


N. 


M. 


F. 


N. 


Nom. 


unus 


una 


unum 


uter 


utra 


utrum 


Gen. 


unius 


unius 


unius 


utrius 


utrius 


utrius 


DAT. 


uni 


uni 


uni 


utri 


utri 


utri 


Acc. 


unum 


unani 


unum 


utrum 


utram 


utrum 


Abl. 


uno 


una 


uno 


utro 


utra 


utro 


Nom. 


alius 


alia 


aliud 


alter 


altera 


alterum 


Gen. 


alius 


alius 


alius 


alterius 


alterius 


alterius 


Dat. 


alii 


alii 


alii 


alter! 


alteri 


alteri 


Acc. 


alium 


aliam 


aliud 


alterum 


alteram 


alterum 


Abl. 


alio 


alia 


alio 


altero 


altera 


altero 



b. The plural of these words is regular, like that of bonus. 

2. — Third Declension. 

84. Adjectives of the third declension having stems 
in i — distinguished by being parisyllabic — have prop- 
erly no distinct form for the feminine, and hence are 
called adjectives of two terminations. In the neuter the 
nominative ends in e. They are declined as follows : — 



Sing. 


M., F. Ugl 


ht. N. 


m. keen 


. F. 


N. 


N., V. 


levis 


leve • 


acer 


acris 


acre 


Gen. 


levis 


levis 


acris 


acris 


acris 


Dat. 


levl 


levi 


acri 


acri 


acri 


Acc. 


levem 


leve 


acrem 


acrem 


acre 


Abl. 


levl 


levi 


acri 


acri 


acri 


Plur. 












N., V. 


leves 


levia 


acres 


acres 


acria 


Gen. 


levium 


levium 


acrium 


acrium 


acrium 


Dat. 


levibus 


levibus 


acribus 


acribus 


acribus 


Acc. 


leves (is) 


levia 


acres (is) 


acres (is) 


acria 


Abl. 


levibus 


levibus 


acribus 


acribus 


acribus 



a. The following stems in -ri have the masc. nom. in er : acer, 
alacer, campester, celeber, equester, paluster, pedester, puter, salu- 
ber, Silvester, terr ester, volucer. Also, celer, ceteris, celere j and, 
in certain phrases, the names of months in -ber (compare 51. b). 

Note. — This formation is comparatively late, and hence, in the poets, and in 
early Latin, either the masculine or the feminine form of these adjectives was used 
for both genders. In others, as illustris, lugubris, mediocris, muliebris, there is 
no separate masculine form. 



d in aliud. The i in the genitive -ius, though long, may be made short in verse ; 
and alterius is generally accented on the antepenult. In compounds — as alterilter 
— sometimes both parts are declined, sometimes only the latter. 



§16 

3. b. 



3. 



40 Etymology: Adjectives. 

b. Case-Forms. These adjectives, as true i-stems, retain I in 
the ablative singular, the neuter-plural ia, the genitive plural ium, 
and often in the accusative plural is. For metrical reasons, an 
ablative in e sometimes occurs in poetry. 

c. When celer is used as an adjective, it has the regular genitive 
plural in ium; as a noun, denoting a military rank, it has celerwn; 
as a proper name, it has the ablative in e. 

d. Adverbs are formed from adjectives of the third declension 
with the ending ter or iter : as, leviter, lightly; prudenter, wise- 
ly; acriter, eagerly (see Chap. VII). 

35. The remaining adjectives of the third declension 
(except comparatives) are consonant-stems, but have the 
form of i-stems in the ablative singular i, the plural 
neuter ia, and the genitive ium. In other cases they 
follow the rule of consonant-stems. 

a. In adjectives of consonant-stems (except comparatives) the 
nominative singular is alike for all genders : hence they are called 
adjectives of one termination. 1 Except in the case of stems in 1 
and r, it is formed from the stem by adding s (compare 44) : as, 

Sing. M., F. fierce. N. m., f. needy. n. 

N., V. atrox 

Gen. atrocis 

Dat. atroci 

Ace. atr5cem atrox " egentem egens 

Abl. atroci or atroce egenti or egente 



egens 

egentis 
egenti 



Plur. 



N., V. atroces atrocia egentes egentia 

Gen. atr5cium egentium 

Dat. atrocibus egentibus 

Ace. atroces (is) atrocia egentes (is) egentia 

Abl. atrocibus egentibus 



The regular feminine of these adjectives, by analogy of cognate languages, 
woLild end in ia: this form does not appear in Latin adjectives, but is found in 
the abstracts amentia, desidia, sdcordia, 6v., and in proper names, as Florentia 
(cf. Greek <f>e P ov<ra for ^epovr-ta). The neuter would regularly have in the nomina- 
tive and accusative singular the simple stem as caput, cor(d\ allec, Greek ^ pov (r) • 
but in all except liquid stems, the masc. form in s has forced itself not only upon 
the neuter nominative, but upon the accusative also, where it is wholly abnormal. 



Inflection of Adjectives. 



41 



N. 

praeceps 

praecipitis 
praecipiti 
praecipitem praeceps 
praecipiti 



b. Other examples are the following : — 

Sing. M., F. going. n. m.,f., equal. N. M., F. headlong. 

N. V. iens par 

Gen. euntis paris 

Dat. eunti pari 

Acc. euntem iens parem par 

Abl. eunte (i) pari 

Plur. 

N.,A.,V. euntes 

Gen. 

D., Abl, 

Sing. 

N.,V. 

Gen. 

Dat. 

Acc. 

Abl. 



euntia 
euntium 
euntibus 



M., f. rich, 
dives 

divitis 
diviti 
divitem dives 

divite 



pares paria 
parium 
paribus 

n. m., f. fertile. 
uber 
iiberis 
uberi 
uberem uber 
vibere 



praecipites praecipitia 
praecipitiuru 
praecipitibus 

n. m., f. old. N. 
vetus 
veteris 
veteri 
veterem vetus 

vetere 



uberes ubera 
uberum 
uberibus 



veteres vetera 
veterum 
veteribus 



Plur. 

N.,A.,V. dlvites [ditia] 
Gen. divitum 

D., Abl. divitibus 

c. A few of these words, used as nouns, have a feminine form 
in a : as, clienta, hospita, with the appellative Juno Sosfiita. 

3. — Comparatives. 

86. Comparatives are declined as follows : — 

M., F. more. n. 

plus 

pluris 

plus 

plure 

plures plura 

plurium 
pluribus 

plures (is) plura 
pluribus 

a. The stem of comparatives properly ended in os, which 
became or in all cases except the neuter singular (n., a., v.), where 
s is retained, and 6 is changed to u (compare honor, oris j corpus, 
oris). Thus they appear to have two terminations. 

b. The neuter singular accusative of comparatives is used as an 
Adverb : as, melius, better j acrius, 7nore keenly. 



Sing. 


m., f. better. n. 


N., V. 


melior melius 


Gen. 


melioris 


Dat. 


meliori 


Acc. 


meliorem melius 


Abl. 


meliore or meliori 


Plur. 




N., V. 


meliores meliora 


Gen. 


meliorum 


Dat. 


melioribus 


Acc. 


meliores (is) meliora 


Abl. 


melioribus 



§16 
3. a. 



3. b. 



42 Etymology: Adjectives. 

c. The neuter singular plus is used only as a noun ; the genitive 
(rarely ablative), as an expression of value. The dative is not 
found in classic use. Its derivative, complures, several, has 
sometimes the neuter plural compluria. All other comparatives 
are declined like melior. 

Case-Forms. 

87. In adjectives of consonant stems the following 
case-forms are to be remarked : — 

a. Their ablative singular commonly ends in I; but, when used 
as nouns (as, superstes, survivor), they have e. Participles in 
ns used as such (especially in the ablative absolute), or as nouns, 
regularly have e; but as adjectives, regularly!. So adjectives in 
ns, as in the phrase, me imprudente. 

b. In the following, e is the regular form of the ablative : — 
caeles, co?npos, deses, dives, hospes, pauper, particeps, princeps, 
superstes, supplex; also in patrials (see § 54. 3), with stems in at-, 
It-, nt- f rt-, when used as nouns, and sometimes as adjectives. 

c. The genitive plural ends commonly in ium; the accusative 
often ends in is, even in comparatives, which are less inclined to 
the i-declension. 

d. In the following, the genitive plural ends in um: — 

1. Always in dives, compos, inops, praepes, supplex, and com- 
pounds of nouns which have um, as quadru-pes, bi-color. 

2. Sometimes, in poetry, of participles in ns. 

e. In vetus (eris), pubes (eris), uber (eris), which did not be- 
come i-stems, the forms e, a, um, are regular ; but uber and vetus 
rarely have the ablative in 1. 

f Several adjectives are declined in more than one form : as, 
gracilis (us), hilaris (us), inermis (us). A few are indeclinable 
or defective : as, damnas (esto, sunto), frugi (dat. of advantage), 
exspes (only nom.), exlex (nom. and ace), mactus (nom. and voc), 
nequam (indecl.), pemox (pernocte), potis, pote (indecl. or M. F. 
potis, N. pote), primoris, seinineci, &c. 

Special Uses. 

88. The following special uses are to be observed : — 

a. Many adjectives have acquired the meaning and construc- 
tion of nouns : as, amicus, a friend j aequalis, a contemporary j 
majores, ancestors (see Note p. 37). 

b. Many adjectives, from the signification, are used only in the 
masculine or feminine, and may be called adjectives of common 



Comparison of Adjectives. 43 

gender. Such are adulescens, youthficl; deses, idis, slothful j 
1 inops, o"p&, poor ; sospes, itis, safe. So senex and juvenis may- 
be called masculine adjectives. 

c. Many nouns may be also used as adjectives (compare Syntax 
i of adjectives) : as, pedes, a footman or on foot; especially nouns 

in tor (m.) and trix (f.), denoting the agent : as victor exercitus, 
the conquering army j victrix causa, the winning cause. 

d. Certain cases of many adjectives are regularly used as 
I Adverbs. These are, the accusative and ablative of the neuter 

singular : as, multum, multo, much; the neuter of comparatives 
(see 86. b) : as, melius, better j levius, more lightly. Adverbs 
ending in e from o-stems, and ter from i-stems, were also originally 
cases : as, care, dearly j leviter, lightly ; acerrime, most eagerly. 

COMPARISON. 
Regular Comparison. 

89. The Comparative is formed by adding, for the 
nominative, ior (neuter ius 1 ), and the Superlative by 
adding issimus (a, urn) to the stem of the Positive, 
which loses its final vowel : as, 

carus, dear ; carior, dearer; carissimus, dearest. 

levis, light j levior, lighter; levissimus, lightest. 

felix, happy ; felicior, happier; fellcissimus, happiest. 

hebes, dull; hebetior, duller; hebetissimus, dullest. 

a. Adjectives in er form the superlative by adding -rimus to 
the nominative ; the comparative is regular : as, 

acer, keen; acrior, acerrimus ; 

miser, wretched; miserior, miserrimus. 
So vetus (veteris) has superlative veterrimus, from the old form 
veter; and, rarely, maturrijnus (also maturissimus) is formed 
from maturus. For comparative of vetus, vetustior is used. 

b. The following in lis add -limus to the stem clipped of its 
vowel : facilis, difficilis, similis, dissimilis, gracilis, humilis 
(comparative regular) : as, facilis, easy ; facilior, facillimus. 



1 The comparative suffix (earlier ios) is the same as the Greek <W, or the Skr. 
iyans. That of the superlative (isshnus) is a double form, but what is the com- 
bination is not certain ; perhaps it stands for ios-ti?7tus (comparative and superla- 
tive), or possibly for ist-timus (two superlatives). The endings -limus and -rimus 
are formed by assimilation from -timus and -simus. The comparative and super- 
lative are thus formed upon new stems, and are not to be strictly regarded as 
forms of inflection. 



44 Etymology: Adjectives. 

takt £T Unds * - dICUS <****>. " flc « s (**** -vSlus (wilting), 

ake the forms of corresponding participles in ns, wb ch wefe 
anciently used as adjectives : as, 

maledicus, slanderous; maledlcentior, maledicentissimus. 
malevolus, tfrfjfr/y malevolentior, malevolentissimus 

fori A f ^ CtiV£S - n US PreC6ded by a V0Wel Cexcept u) rarely have 
forms of companson, but are compared by the adverbs LgTs 
more; maame, most : as, «*«sis, 

idoneus,;?// magis idoneus, maxime idoneus 
Most derivatives in -fcus, -Mus, alls, -iris, iHs, ulus, -undus, 
- imus, -mus -ivus, -orus, with compounds, as degener, inois are 
also compared w,th magis and ma*i m e. Pius hJ&J? 

/. A form of Diminutive is made upon the stem of some com- 
paratives : as, majusculus, somewhat larger. 

Irregular and Defective Comparison. 

90. Several adjectives are compared from different 
stems, or contain irregular forms : as, 

bonus, melior, optimus, good, better, best. 

malus, pejor (peior), pessimus, bad, worse, worst. 

magnus, major (maior), maximus, great, greater, greatest. 

parvus, minor, minimus, small, less, least. 

multus, plus (n.), plurimus, much, more, most. 

multi, phlres, plurimi, many, more, most. 

nequam (indecl.), nequior, nequissimus, worthless. 

frugi (indecl.), frugalior, frugalissimus, useful, worthy. 

dexter, dexterior, dextimus, on the right, handy. 

91. The following are formed from roots or stems not 
used as adjectives : — ■ 

cis, citra : citerior, citimus, hither, hither most. 

in, intra : interior, intimus, inner, inmost. 

prae, pro : prior, primus, former, first. 

prope : propior, proximus, nearer, next. 

ultra: ulterior, ultimus, farther, farthest. 



Comparison of Adverbs. 



45 



a. Of the following the positive forms — themselves originally 
! comparative — are rare, except when used as nouns (generally in 

the plural) : — 

exterus, exterior, extremus (extimus), outer, outmost. 

infer us, inferior, infimus (Imus), lower, lowest. 

posterus, posterior, postremus (po&tumus), latter, last. 

superus, superior, supremus or summus, higher, highest. 
The plurals, exteri, foreigners j posteri, posterity j superi, the 
heavenly gods ; inferi, those below, are common. 

b. From juvenis, youth, senex, old man, are formed the com- 
paratives junior, younger, senior, older. Instead of the superla- 
tive, the phrase minimus or maximus natii is used (itatu being 
often understood), as also major and minor in the comparative. 

c. In the following, one of the forms of comparison is wanting : — 

1. The positive is wanting in deterior, deterrinius ; ocior, ocissi- 
musj potior, potissii7ius. 

2. The Comparative is wanting in bellus, caesius, falsus, fidus, 
inclutus (or inclitus), invictus, invitus, novus, plus, sacer, vafer, 
vetus. 

3. The Superlative is wanting in actuosus, agrestis, alacer, arca- 
nus, caecus, diiitumus, exilis, ingens, jejiinus, longinquus, obliquus, 
opimus, procllvis, propinquus, satur, segnis, serus, suplnus, surdus, 
taciturnus, teinpestlvus, teres, viclnus, and some in ilis. 

Comparison of Adverbs. 

92. Adverbs formed from adjectives are compared as 
follows (see 81. b, 84. d) : as, 

carus, dear : care, carius, carissime. 

miser, wretched : misere (miseriter), miserius, miserrime. 
levis, light : leviter, levius, levissime. 
audax, bold : audacter (audaciter), audacius, audacissime. 
bonus, good: bene, melius, optime. 
malus, bad : male, pejus (peius), pessime. 
Also, in like manner — 

diu, long (in time) : diutius, diutissime. 

potius, rather j potissimum,_^r^ (or chief) of all. 

saepe, often : saepius, saepissime. 

satis, enough; satius, preferable. 

secus, otherwise j secius, worse. 

multum (multo), magis, maxime, much, inore, most. 

parum, minus, minime. 



46 Etymology : Numerals. 

Signification. 

93. Besides their regular signification, the forms of 
comparison are used as follows : — 

a. The Comparative denotes a considerable or excessive degree 
of a quality : as, brevior, rather short; audacior, too bold. It is 
used instead of the superlative where only two are spoken of. 

b. The Superlative (of eminence) often denotes a very high 
degree of a quality without a distinct comparison : as, maximus 
numerus, a very great number. With quam, it indicates the 
highest degree : as, quam plurimi, as many as possible; quam 
maxime potest (quam potest), as much as can be. 

c. With quisque, the superlative has a peculiar signification : 
thus the phrase ditissimus quisque means,.*?.// the richest ; primus 
quisque, all the first (each in his order) . 1 Two superlatives with 
quisque imply a proportion : as, 

sapientissimus quisque aequissimo animo moritur, the 
wisest men die with the greatest equanimity (Cat. Maj. 23). 

d. A high degree of a quality is denoted by such adverbs as 
admodum, valde, very ; or by per or prae in composition : as, 
permagnus, very great; praealtus, very high (or deep). 

e. A low degree is indicated by sub in composition : as, sub- 
rusticus, rather cotintrified '; or by minus, not very ; minime, not 
at all; parum, not enough; non satis, not imich. 

f. The comparatives maj ores and minores have the special 
signification of ancestors and descendants. 

NUMERALS. 
Cardinal and Ordinal. 

94. Cardinal Numbers answer to the interrogative 
quot, how many ? Ordinal Numbers 2 to quotus, which 
in order, or one of how many? They are as follows : — 

1 As in taking one by one off a pile, each piece is uppermost when you take it. 

2 The Ordinals (except secundus, tertius, octdvus) are formed by means of the 
same suffixes as superlatives. Thus decimns (compare the form itifimzts) may be 
regarded as the last of a series of ten ; prunus is a superlative of pro ; the forms 
in -tus {quartus, quintus, sextzts) may be compared with the corresponding Greek 
forms in -to<t and rrpdroq, superlative of -rrpo -, nonus is contracted from notrimus; 
while the others have the regular superlative ending -simus. Of the exceptions, 
scciindus is a participle of sequor ; and alter is a comparative form (compare repos 
in Greek). The multiples of ten are compounds of the unit with a fragment of 
decern : as, viginti = dvi-ginii (diti-decem-ti). 



Numerals. 



47 



CARDINAL. 




ORDINAL. ROMAN NUMERALS. 


I. Onus, una, unum, one. 


primus, a, um,jirst. 


1. 


2. duo, duae, duo, 


two. 


secundus (alter), second. 11. 


3. tres, tria, three. 


frc. 


tertius, third. 


in. 


4. quattuor 




quartus 


IV. 


5. quinque 




quintus 


v. 


6. sex 




sextus 


VI. 


7. septem 




Septimus 


VII. 


8. octo 




octavus 


VIII. 


* 9. novem 




nonus 


IX. 


10. decern 




decimus 


X. 


u. undecim 




undecimus 


XI. 


12. duodecim 




duodecimus 


XII. 


13. tredecim 




tertius decimu,s 


XIII. 


14. quattuordecim 




quartus decimus 


XIV. 


15. quindecim 




quintus decimus 


XV. 


16. sedecim 




sextus decimus 


XVI. 


17. septendecim 




Septimus decimus 


XVII. 


18. duodevlginti (octodecim) 


duodevlcesimus 


XVIII. 


19. undevlginti (novendecim) 


undevicesimus 


XIX. 


20. viginti 




vicesimus (vlgesimus) 


XX. 


2-i. viginti unus <?runus et viginti vicesimus primus, etc. 


XXI. 


30. trlginta 




tricesimus 


XXX. 


40. quadraginta 




quadragesimus 


XL. 


So. quinquaginta 




quinquagesimus 


L. 


60. sexaginta 




sexagesimus 


LX. 


70. septuaginta 




septuagesimus 


LXX. 


80. octoginta 




octSgesimus 


LXXX. 


90. nonaginta 




nonagesimus 


XC. 


100. centum 




centesimus 


C. 


200. ducenti, ae, a 




ducentesimus 


cc. 


300. trecenti 




trecentesimus 


ccc. 


400. quadringenti 




quadringentesimus 


cccc. 


500. quingenti 




quingentesimus 


ID, or d. 


600. sexcenti 




sexcentesimus 


DC. 


700. septingenti 




septingentesimus 


DCC. 


800. octingenti 




octingentesimus 


DCCC. 


900. nongenti 




nongentesimus 


DCCCC. 


1000. mille 




millesimus CIO, or M. 


5000. quinque millia 


(mllia) 


quinquies millesimus 


133. 


10,000. decern millia (mllia) 


decies millesimus 


CCI3D. 


100,000. centum millia (mllia) 


centies millesimus 


CCCIDD3. 



4 8 



Etymology : Numerals. 



a. For the inflection of unus, see 83. a. It often has the 
meaning of same or only. It is used in the plural in this sense, as 
also to agree with a plural noun of a singular meaning : as, una 
castra, one camp. So uni et alteri, one party and the other. 

b. Duo, 1 two, and ambo, both, are thus declined : — 



Nom. 


duo 


duae 


duo 


Gen. 


duorum 


duarum 


duorum 


DAT. 


duobus 


duabus 


duobus 


Ace. 


duos (duo) 


duas 


duo 


Abl. 


duobus 


duabus 


duobus 



c. Tres, tria, three, is an i-stem, and is regularly declined like 
the plural of levis (see 84). The other cardinal numbers, up to 
centum (100), are indeclinable. The forms octodeci7n, novendecim, 
are rare, undeviginti, duodevlginti, &c, being more common. 

d. The hundreds, up to 1000, and all the ordinals, are o-stems, 
and are regularly declined like the plural of bonus. 

e. Mille, a thousand, is an indeclinable adjective. In the plural 
(milia or millia, thousands), it is used as a neuter noun, with 
a genitive plural : as, cum duobus milibus hominum* 

Note. — The singular mille is also sometimes found as a noun in the nomina- 
tive and accusative : as, mille hominitm misit ; but in the other cases only in con- 
nection with the same case of millia: as, cum octo millibus peditum, mille equitum. 

Distributives. 

95. Distributive Numerals are declined like the plural 
of bonus. They answer to the interrogative quoteni, 
how many of each, or at a time : as, 



I. 


singuli, one 


by one. 


13- 


terni deni, &c 


200. 


duceni 


2. 


blni, two-and-two. 


18. 


duodevlceni 


300. 


treceni 


3- 


terni, tiini 




19. 


undeviceni 


400. 


quadringeni 


4. 


quaterni 




20. 


vlceni 


500. 


quingeni 


5- 


qulni 




30- 


trlceni 


600. 


sesceni 


6. 


seni 




40. 


quadrageni 


700. 


septingeni 


7. 


septeni 




50. 


quinquageni 


800. 


octingeni 


8. 


octoni 




60. 


sexageni 


900. 


nongeni 


9- 


noveni 




70. 


septuageni 


1000. 


milleni 


10. 


deni 




80. 


octogeni 


2000. 


blna millia 


11. 


undeni 




90. 


nonageni 


10,000. 


dena millia 


12. 


duodeni 




100. 


centeni 


100,000. 


centena millia 



1 This form in -0 is a remnant of the dual ?iic7?iber, which was lost in Latin, 
but is found in cognate languages. 2 Or, in poetry, cum bis mille fominibus. 



Numeral Adverbs. 49 

Distributives are used as follows : — 

a. In the meaning of so many apiece or on each side : as, sin- 
gula singulis, one apiece; agri septena jugera plebi divisa sunt, 
i. e. seven acres to each citizen, 

b. Instead of Cardinals, when a noun is plural in form but 
singular in meaning: as, bina castra, two camps (duo castra 
would mean two forts). But the plural uni is used (instead of 
singuli), and trini (not terni), to signify one and three (See 94. a). 

c. In multiplication : as, bis bina, twice two ; ter septenis 
diebus, in thrice seven days, i.e. in three weeks. 

d. By the poets instead of cardinal numbers, particularly where 
pairs or sets are spoken of : as, bina hastilia, two shafts (each 
person*usually carrying two). 

Numeral Adverbs. 

96. The Numeral Adverbs answer to the interrogative 
quotiens (quoties), how often. They are used, in combination 
with mille, to express the higher numbers : as, ter et tricies 
(centena millid) sestertium, 3,300,000 sesterces. 

1. semel, once. 12. duodecies 

2. bis, twice. 13. terdecies 

3. ter, thrice. 14. quaterdecies 

4. quater T5. quindecies 

5. quinquies (ens) 16. sedecies 

6. sexies . 17. septiesdecies 

7. septies 18. duodevicies 

8. octies 19. undevicies 

9. novies 20. vicies 
10. decies 21. semel et vicies, &c. 
n. undecies 30. tricies 

97. The adjectives simplex (single), duplex, triplex, quadru-, 
qtiincu-, septe?n-, decern-, centu-, sesqui- (i/^), multi-plex, are 
called Multiplicatives. They are compounds of -plico (as in English 
two-fold) ; and are inflected as adjectives of one termination. 

Other derivatives are — 

a. Proportionals : duplus, triplus, &c., twice or thrice as great. 

b. Temporals : bimus, trimus, of two or three years' age ; biennis, 
triennis, lasting two or three years ; bimestris, trimestris, of two or three 
months ; biduum, biennium, a period of two days ox years. 

c. Partitives : blnarius, ternarius, of two ox three pa?'ts. 

d. Fractions : dimidia pars (dimidium), a half; tertia pars, a third. 

e. The following : unio, unity; binio, the two (of dice); blnarius, 
consisting of two; pnmanus, of the first (legion) ; prlmarms, of the first 
rank ; denarius, a sum of 10 asses ; binus (diatrib.), double, &c. 

4 



40. 
50. 
60. 


quadragies 

quinquagies 

sexagies 


70. 
80. 


septuagies 
octogies 


90. 

100. 
200. 


nonagies 

centies 

ducenties 


300. 

OOO. 

000. 


trecenties 

millies 
decies millies 



So 



Etymology: Pronotms. 



Chapter V. — Pronouns. 

Personal and Reflexive. 

98. The Personal Pronouns of the first person are 
ego, /, nos, we; of the second person, tu, thou, vos, 
ye or you. 

FIRST PERSON. 

ego, / nos, we 

mei, of me nostrum (trl), of us 
mini, to me nobis, to us 
nSs, us 



me, me 



SECOND PERSON. 


t3, thou 


vos, ye or you 


tui 


vestrum (tri) 


tibi 


vobis 


te 


vos 


tu 


vos 


te 


vobis # 



Nom. 
Gen. 
Dat. 
Ace. 

Voc. 

Abl. me, by me nobis, by us 

a. These pronouns are also used reflexively : as, ipse te 
nimium laudas, you praise yourself too much. 

b. The personal pronouns of the third person — he, she, it, they 
— are wanting in Latin, a demonstrative being sometimes used. 

c. The Reflexive pronoun of the third person (referring to the 
subject of the sentence or clause, and hence used only in the 
oblique cases) is the same in the singular and plural : viz., 

Gen. sui, of hi?nself, herself, the7Jiselves. 
Dat. sibi, to „ „ „ 

Ace. se (sese) „ „ „ 

Abl. se (sese), by „ ,, „ 

d. The plural nos is often used for the singular I; the plural 
vos never for the singular tu. 1 

99. In the meaning and use of these Pronouns it is 
to be observed that — 

a. For the genitive of possession (Subjective), the Adjectives 
meus, tuus, suus, noster, vester (voster), are to be used, declined 
as in 82. But meus has the vocative singular masculine 7nl 
(rarely meus). 

b. The genitives nostrum, vestrum, are the contracted genitive 
plural of the possessives noster, vester. (So in early and late 
Latin we find una vestraruni.) They are used par tit ively : as, 

unusquisque nostrum, each one of us. 



1 There is an old form of genitive in is : as mis, tis, sis ; also an accusative 
and ablative vied, ted, sed. The earlier form vostrum, vostri, is sometimes used 
for vestrum, vestri. 



Proiicmns: Demonstrative. 51 

c. The genitives inei, tut, sui, nostri, vestri, are the genitive 
singular of the neuter possessives, meum, &c., meaning my, your, 
our, interest or concern, and chiefly used objectively : as, 

memor sis nostri, be mindful of us. 

d. The reciprocal {each other) is expressed by inter se or alter 
. . . alterum: as, inter se amant, they love each other. 

e. The preposition cum, with, is joined enclitically with the 
ablative of these pronouns : as, tecum loquitur, he talks with you. 

f To the personal (and sometimes to the adjective) pronouns 
enclitics are joined for emphasis : — met to all except tu (nom.) ; 
-te to tu (Jute, also tutimet) ; -pte to the ablative singular of the 
adjectives, and in early Latin to the others : as, 

vosmetipsos proctitis, you betray your own very selves. 

suopte pondere, by its own wet 



Demonstrative. 

100. The Demonstrative Pronouns are hie, this ; 
is, ille, iste, that ; with the Intensive ipse, self, and 
idem, same} 

a. Ille is a later form of ollus (olle), which is sometimes used 
by the poets ; a genitive singular in i, ae, i, occurs in ille and iste. 

b. Iste is sometimes found in early writers in the form ste, &c, 
with the entire loss of the first syllable ; and the i of ipse and ille 
is very often found shortened. 

c. Ipse is compounded of is and -pse (for pte, from the same 
root as potis), meaning self. The former part was originally de- 
clined, as in reapse (for re eapse), in fact. An old form ipsus 
occurs. Idem is the demonstrative is with the affix -dem. 

101. These demonstratives are used either with nouns 
as Adjectives, or alone as Pronouns ; and, from their 
signification, cannot (except ipse) have a vocative. They 
are thus declined : — 



1 These demonstratives are combinations of o and i-stems, which are not clearly 
distinguishable. Hie is a compound of the stem ho- with the demonstrative 
ce, which appears in full in early Latin (bice), and when followed by the enclitic -lie 
{hicine). In most of the cases ce is shortened to c, and in many lost ; but it is 
appended for emphasis to those that do not regularly retain it {hujusce). In early- 
Latin c alone is retained in some of these (horunc). Ille and iste are sometimes 
found with the same enclitic : illic, illaec, illuc ; also illoc (ace. or abl. : 101. a). 



52 




Etymology : P 


ronouns 






Sing. 


m. 


F. 


N. 


M. 


F. 


N. 


Nom. 


hie 


haec 


hoc, this. 


is 


ea 


id, that. 


Gen. 


hujus 


hujus 


hujus 


ejus 


ejus 


ejus 


DAT. 


huic 


huic 


huic 


ei 


ei 


ei 


Ace. 


hunc 


hanc 


hoc 


eum 


earn 


id 


Abl. 


hoc 


hae 


hoc 


eo 


ea 


eo 


Plur. 














Nom. 


hi 


hae 


haec, these. 


ii (ei) 


eae 


ea, those. 


Gen. 


horum 


harum 


horum 


eorum 


earum 


eorum 


DAT. 


his 


his 


his 


eis or iis 




Ace. 


hos 


has 


haec 


eos 


eas 


ea 


Abl. 


his 


his 


his 




eis or iis 



Note. — For the dative and ablative plural of hie the old forms 
hibus and ibus are sometimes found ; also (rarely) haec for hae. 
Sing. 
Nom. 
Gen. 
Dat. 
Ace. 
Abl. 

Plur. 

N., V. illi illae ilia ipsi ipsae ipsa 

Gen. illorum illarum illorum ipsorum ipsarum ipsorum 

Dat. illis illis illis ipsis ipsis ipsis 

Ace. illos illas ilia ipsos ipsas ipsa 

Abl. illis illis illis ipsis ipsis ipsis 



M. 


F. 


N. 




M. 


F. 


N. 




ille 


ilia 


illud, 


that. 


ipse 


ipsa 


ipsum, 


self. 


illius 


illius 


illius 




ipsius 


ipsius 


ipsius 




illi 


illi 


illi 




ipsi 


ipsi 


ipsi 




ilium 


illam 


illud 




ipsum 


ipsam 


ipsum 




illo 


ilia 


illo 




ipso 


ipsa 


ipso 





Sing. 

N. idem eadem idem 
G. ejusdemejusdemejusdem 
D. eidem eidem eidem 
A. eundem eandem idem 
A. eodem eadem eodem 



the same. Plur. 

iidem (ei-) eaedem eadem 
eorundem earundem eorundem 

eisdem or iisdem 
eosdem easdem eadem 

eisdem or iisdem 



a. Iste, ista, istud, that (yonder), is declined like ille. By 
combination with the demonstrative -ce, 1 ille and iste have the 
following forms : — 



Sing. m. f. n. 

Nom. illic illaec illoc (illuc) 

Ace. illunc illanc illoc (illuc) 

Abl. illoc iliac illoc 

Plur. 

Nom. or Ace. illaec 



istic (isthic) istaec istoc (istuc) 
istunc istanc istoc (istuc) 

istoc istac istoc 

istaec 



1 The intensive ce is also found in numerous combinations : as, hujusce, 
huncce, korunce, harunce, kosce, hisce, illiusce, Usee ; also with the interrogative 
-ne, in hoeine, /loseine, istueine, illicine, &c. The enclitic pse is found in the 
forms eapse (nom.), eumpse, eampse, eopse, edpse (abl.) ; also in redpse {re ipsa). 



Pronouns : Demonstrative. 



53 



b. The normal forms Mi, isti (gen.), and Mae, istae (dat.), are 
found ; also the nominative plural istaece, Maece (for istae, Mae). 

c. The forms iidem, iisdem, are often written idem, isdem. 
Obsolete forms are eae (dat. for ei), and eabus or ibus (for its). 

d. By composition with ecce or en, behold ! are found eccum, 
eccam, eccos, eccas j eccillum, ellum, ellam, ellos, ellas; eccistam. 
These forms are dramatic and colloquial. 

e. The combinations hujusmodi (hujuscemodi), ejusmodi, &c, 
are used as indeclinable adjectives, equivalent to talis, such : as, 
res ejusmodi, such a thing (a thing of that sort : compare 215). 

102. In the use of these demonstratives it is to be 
observed that — 

a. Hie is used of what is near the speaker (in time, place, 
thought, or on the written page) ; hence called the demonstrative 
of the first person. It is sometimes used of the speaker himself; 
sometimes for " the latter " of two things mentioned ; more rarely 
for " the former." 

b. Ille is used of what is remote (in time, &c.) ; hence called 
the demonstrative of the third person. It is sometimes used to 
mean " the former ; " also (usually following its noun) of what is 

famous or well-known j often (especially the neuter illud) to mean 
" the following." 

c. Iste is used of what is between the two others in remoteness : 
often in allusion to the person addressed, — hence called the 
de?nonstrative of the second person. It especially refers to one's 
opponent (in court, &c), and frequently implies contempt. 

d. Is is a weaker demonstrative than the others, not denoting 
any special object, but referring to one just mentioned, or to be 
explained by a relative. It is used oftener than the others as a 
personal pronoun (see 98. b) ; and is often merely a correlative to 
the relative qui : as, eum quern, one whom; eum consulem qui 
non dubitet (Cic.) , a consul who will not hesitate. 

e. Ipse may be used with a personal pronoun of either person, 
as nos ipsi (nosmetipsi), we ourselves; or independently (the 
verb containing the pronoun, or the context implying it), as ipsi 
adeatis, you are yourselves present; or with a noun, as ipsi fontes 
(Virg.), the very fountains. 

Note. — In English, the pronouns himself. &c, are used both intensively (as, 
he will come himself) and reflexively (as, he will kill himself) : in Latin the former 
would be translated ipse : the latter se 9 or sese. 



54 Etymology : Pronouns. 



Relative, Interrogative, and Indefinite. 

Note. — The Relative, Interrogative, and Indefinite Pronouns 
are originally of the same Stem, and the forms for the most part 
are the same (compare 103 with 104) ; viz., qui, quis 1 {who, who? 
any), with their compounds and derivatives. 

103. The relative pronoun qui is thus declined : — 





SIN 


GULAR. 


who, 


which. 


PLURAL. 




Nom. 


qui 


quae 


quod 


qui 


quae 


quae 


Gen. 


cujus 


cujus 


cujus 


quorum 


quarum 


quorum 


DAT. 


cui 


cui 


cui 


quibus 


quibus 


quibus 


Ace. 


quern 


quam 


quod 


quos 


quas 


quae 


Abl. 


quo 


qua 


quo 


quibus 


quibus 


quibus 



104. The interrogative or indefinite quis (qui) is de- 
clined in the singular as follows (plural as above) : — 

who ? which f any. 

Nom. quis (qui) quae quid (quod) 

Gen. cujus cujus cujus 

Dat. cui cui cui 

Ace. quern quam quid (quod) 

Abl. quo qua quo 

Case Forms. — a. The Relative has always qui and quod in 
the nominative singular. The Interrogative and Indefinite have 
quis, quid, substantive, and qui, quod, adjective. But quis and 
qui are sometimes used for each other. Thus — 

quis vocat? who calls? quid vides? what do you see f but — 
qui (or quis) homo vocat? quod templum vides? 
nescio qui sis, I know not who you are. 

b. Old forms for the genitive and dative are quoius, quoi. 

c. The form qui is used for the ablative of both numbers and 
all genders ; but especially as an adverb {how, by which way, in 
any way), and in the combination quicum, as interrogative or 
indefinite relative. 

d. A nominative plural ques (stem qui-) is found in early 
Latin. The dative and ablative quis (stem qub-) is old, but not 
infrequent. 



1 The stem has two forms, quo- and qui-. From the latter are formed quis, 
quic^ quern, quibus, qui (abl.) ; while qui, quae, are probably lengthened forms of 
qud, qua (see 32, decl. 1), made by the addition of the demonstrative particle i. 



Pronouns : Relative and Interrogative. 



55 



e. The preposition cum is joined enclitically to all forms of the 
ablative, as with the personal pronouns : as, quocum, quicum, qui- 
buscum. 

f The accusative form quum (cum) is used only as a conjunc- 
tion, meaning when or since. 

105. The stems quo- and qui- are thus compounded : 

a. The suffix -cumque (-cunque) added to the relative makes 
an Indefinite Relative, which is declined as the simple word : as, 

quicumque, quaecumque, quodcumque, whoever, whatever. 

This suffix, with the same meaning, may be used with any 
relative : as, qualiscumque, of whatever sort; quandocumque 
(quandoque), whenever j ubicumque, wherever* 

b. The interrogative form doubled also makes an indefinite 
relative : as, quisquis, whoever (so utut, however, ubiubi, wher- 
ever). Of quisquis both parts are declined, but the feminine is 
wanting in classic use : as, 



Nom. 

Ace. 

Abl. 

Plur. Nom. 



quisquis (quiqui) 
quemquem 
quoquo quaqua 
quiqui DAT. 



quidquid (quicquid) 
quidquid (quicquid) 
quoquo 
Abl. quibusquibus 



This compound is rare, except in the forms quisquis, quicquid, 
and quoquo. The case-form quamquam is used only as a conjunc- 
tion. Quiqui (nom. sing.) is an early and quaqua a late form. The 
grammarians give also a regular genitive and dative. Cuicuimodi 
appears as a genitive, but is probably locative. 
c. Indefinite Compounds are the following : — 



quispiam, any; 
quisquam, any-at-all. 



quidam, a, a certain; 

quivis, quilibet, any-y ou-p lease ; 

Of these, the former part is inflected like quis, qui, with quid or 
quod in the neuter. 

d. In aliquis, any; siquis, if any ; nequis, lest any; ecquis, 
numquis, whether any, the second part is declined like quis, but 
with qua for quae, except in the nominative plural feminine The 
simple form quis, any, is rare except in these combinations ; 
and the compounds quispiam, aliquis, are often used in these, 
being rather more emphatic (si quis, if any one; si aliquis, if 
some one). The forms aliquae, ecquae (nom. sing.), occur rarely. 



56 Etymology: Pronouns ; Correlatives. 

These compounds are thus declined : — 

Sing. some. Plur. 



N. aliquis aliqua aliquid 

G. alicujus 

D. alicui 

A. aliquem aliquam aliquid 

A. aliquo aliqua aliquo 



aliqui aliquae aliqua 

aliquorum aliquarum aliquorum 

aliquibus 
aliquos aliquas aliqua 

aliquibus 



Note. — Aliquis is compounded with ali-, old stem of alius, 
but with weakened meaning. As an adjective, the form in quod is 
used instead of quid : as, 

aliquod bonum, some good thing j but — 
aliquid boni, something good (so7nething of good). 

e. The enclitic -que added to the indefinite gives a Universal : 
as, quisque, every one j ubique, everywhere (so uterque, either of 
two, or both). Of quisque the first part is declined. In the com- 
pound unusquisque, every single one, both parts are declined, and 
sometimes separated by other words. Quotus quisque has the 
signification how many pray f often in a disparaging sense. 

f The relative and interrogative have a possessive adjective 
cujus (a, um), whose j and a patrial cujas (cujat-), of what country . 

g. Quantus, how great, qualis, of what sort, are derivative 
adjectives from the same stem, and are used as interrogative or 
relative, corresponding to the demonstratives tantus, talis. 

Quam, how, is an accusative of the same stem, corresponding 
to the adverbial case-form tarn, so. 

h. Quisquam, with ullus, any, unquam, ever, usquam, any- 
where, are chiefly used in negative, interrogative, or conditional 
sentences, or after quam, than; sine, without j vix, scarcely. 

i. Quisnam is emphatic: pray, who? Ecquis and numquis 
are compounded from the indefinite particle en and the interroga- 
tive num ; they mean not who, but any : as, 

ecquis nos videt ? does any one see us ? 

num quid hoc dubitas, do you at all doubt this f 

Correlatives. 

106. Many pronouns, pronominal adjectives, and 
adverbs have corresponding forms, as demo7istrative, 
relative, interrogative, and indefinite. These are called 
Correlatives. They are shown in the following Table : 







Correlatives, 




57 


DEMONSTR. 


RELAT. 




INTERROG. 


INDEF. REL 


INDEF. 


is, that 


qui 




quis ? 


quisquis 


aliquis 


tantus, so great 


quantus 




quantus ? 


* 


aliquantus 


talis, such 


qualis 




qualis ? 


* 




ibi, there 


ubi 




ubi? 


ubiubi 


alicubi 


eo, thither 


quo 




quo ? 


quoquo 


aliquo 


ea, that way 


qua 




qua ? 


quaqua 


aliqua 


hide, thence 


unde 




unde ? 


* 


alicunde 


turn, then 


quum, cum 


quando ? 


* 


aliquando 


tot, so many 


quot 




quot ? 


quotquot 


aliquot 


toties, so often 


quoties 




quoties ? 


* 


aliquoties 



* Compounds with -cumque. 

a. The forms tot (originally toti), quot, aliquot, totidem, are 
indeclinable, and may take any gender or case : as, 

per tot annos, tot proeliis, tot imperatores (Cic), so many 
commanders, for so many years, in so 7nany battles. 

b. The correlative of the second member is often to be rendered 
simply as : thus, 

tantum argenti quantum aeris, as much silver as copper. 

c. A frequent form of correlative is found in the ablatives quo 
or quanto, by how much; eo or tanto, by so much, used with 
comparatives (rendered in English the . . . the) : x as, 

quo magis conaris, eo longius progrederis, the more you try, 
the farther on you get. 

107. Certain relative and demonstrative adverbs are 
used correlatively, serving as conjunctions : as, 

ut (rel.) . . . ita, sic (dem.), as {while) . . . so {yet). 

tarn (dem.) . . . quam (rel.), so (as) . . . as. 

cum (rel.) . . . turn (dem.), both . . . and; while . . . so also. 

Compare et . . . et, both . . . and; aut (vel) . . . aut (vel), 
either . . . or; sive (seu) . . . sive ; utrum . . . an, whether . . . or. 

Note. — For the reciprocal use of alius and alter, see Syntax 
(203). 



1 In this phrase the is not the definite article, but a pronominal adverb, being 
the Anglo-Saxon instrumental case, thy. 



58 Etymology: Structure of the Verb. 

Chapter VI. — Verbs. 

I. -STRUCTURE OF THE VERB. 
Voice, Mood, Tense. 

108. The inflections of the Verb denote Voice, Mood, 
Tense, Number, and Person. 

a. The Voices are two, Active and Passive. 

b. The Moods are four, Indicative, Subjunctive, Imperative, 
and Infinitive. 1 

c. The Tenses are six, viz. : — 

i. Present, Imperfect, Future (of continued action) ; 

2. Perfect, Pluperfect, Future Perfect (of completed action). 

d. Person and Number. — There are separate terminations 
for each of the three Persons — first, second, and third — both 
in the singular and in the plural. 

Noun and Adjective Forms. 

109. The following Noun and Adjective forms are 
also included in the structure of the Latin Verb : — ■ 

a. Four Participles, 2 viz. : — 

Active : the Present and Future Participles ; 
Passive : the Perfect Participle and the Gerundive. 8 

b. The Gerund : this is in form a neuter noun of the second 
declension, used only in the oblique cases of the singular, its 
nominative being supplied by the Infinitive (see 114. n.). 

c. The Supine : this is in form a defective noun of the fourth 
declension (see 71. a). 

Defective Forms. 

110. Special forms for some of the tenses are wanting 
in certain parts of the verb, viz. : — 



1 The Infinitive is strictly a case of an abstract noun, expressing the action of 
the verb ; but it plays so important a part in verbal construction, that it is properly 
treated as a part of the verb. 

2 The Participles are Adjectives in inflection and meaning (see 25. e), but 
have the power of Verbs in construction and in distinguishing time. 

3 The Gerundive is also used as an adjective, indicating necessity or duty 
(see 113. d). In late use it became a Future Passive Participle. 



Verbs : Voice and Mood. 59 

a. The Subjunctive mood wants the Future and the Future 
Perfect. 1 In some constructions, these tenses are supplied by the 
future participle with corresponding tenses of the verb signifying 
to be : as, cum secuturus sit, since he will follow, 

b. In the Passive voice, tenses of completed action (Perfect, 
Pluperfect, and Future Perfect) are supplied by the Perfect Parti- 
ciple with corresponding tenses (present, imperfect, and future) of 
the verb signifying to be : as, occisus est, he was killed. 

c. In the Imperative mood, the only tenses are the Present and 
the Future. 

d. In the Infinitive mood only the Present and the Perfect are 
formed by inflection. A Future in the active voice is formed by 
the Future Participle with the infinitive signifying to be ; in the 
passive, by the Former Supine with iri (infin. pass, of Ire, to go). 

Voices. 

ill. The active and passive Voices in Latin are 
equivalent to the corresponding English forms, except 
that the tenses of the passive are used with more 
exactness. Thus — 

a. In the Present : domus aedificatur means, not the house is 
built, but is [in course of] being built. 

b. In the Perfect : domus aedificata est, the house is built, 
i. e. the building is now completed ; or, the house was built; i. e. 
at some time indicated. 

Note. — 1. The passive voice often has a Reflexive meaning : 
as, induitur vestem, he puts on his [own] clothes. 

2. Many verbs are only used in the passive form, but with an 
active or reflexive meaning. These are called Deponents, i. e., 
as laying aside (deponere) the active form and passive meaning. 

Moods. 

112. The Moods of the Latin verb are used as 
follows : — 

a. The Indicative Mood is used for direct assertions or interro- 
gations : as, 

valesne ? valeo, Are you well? I am well. 

1 These are wanting, because the original meaning and most of the uses of the 
Subjunctive are future. 



60 Etymology : Structure of the Verb. 

b. The Subjunctive Mood is idiomatically used in commands*, 
conditions, and various dependent clauses. It is frequently trans- 
lated by the English Indicative ; sometimes by the Potential, with 
the auxiliaries may, might, would, should; sometimes by the 
rare Subjunctive ; sometimes by the Infinitive ; and is often used 
for the Imperative, especially in prohibitions : as, 

eamus, let us go. 

si adesses, if you were [now] here. 

cum venisset, when he had come. 

adsum ut videam, / am here to see {that I may see). 

tu ne quaesieris, do not thou inquire. 

nemo est qui ita existimet, there is no one who thinks so* 

Note. — The Latin Subjunctive is often translated, formally, by the English 
potential forms, may, might, could, would, &c, to distinguish it from the Indica- 
tive, because the English has no subjunctive in general use. But the subjunctive 
is used in many cases where we use the indicative ; and we use the potential in 
many cases where the Latin employs a separate verb. Thus, / may write (except 
when it follows ut, in order that) is not scribam (subj.), but licet mini scri- 
bere I I can write is possum scribere ; / woidd write is scribam, scribe- 
rem, or scribere velim (vellem); / should write, if, &c, scriberem si 
. . . , or (implying duty) oportet me scribere. A few examples of the use of 
the subjunctive may be seen in the following : — 

1. beatus sis, may you be blessed. 

2. ne abeat, let him not depart. 

3. quid morer, why should I delay ? 

4. sunt qui putent, there are some who think. 

5. imperat ut scribam, he orders me to write. 

6. nescio quid scribam, / know not what to write. 

7. licet eas, you may go ; cave cadas, don't fall. 

8. vereor ne eat, I fear he will go. 

9. vereor ut eat, I fear he will not go. 

10. si moneam audiat (pres.), if I should warn, he would hear. 

11. si vocarem audiret (imperf.), if I were [now] calling, he woidd hear. 

12. quae cum dixisset abiit, when he had said this, he went away. 

c. The Imperative is used for exhortation or co?nmandj but 
its place is often supplied by the Subjunctive. 

d. The Infinitive is used chiefly as an indeclinable noun, as 
the subject or object of another verb ; but in special constructions 
it takes the place of the Indicative, and may be translated by that 
mood in English (see " Indirect Discourse "). 

Note. — For the Syntax of the Moods, see pp. 184-204. 



The Verb : Participles. 



61 



Participles. 

113. The Participles of the Latin verb are used as 
follows : — 

a. The Present participle (ending in ns) has commonly the 
same meaning and use as the English participle in ing : as, vo- 
cans, calling j legentes, reading. (For its inflection see 8$.) 

b. The Future participle (ending in -urus) is oftenest used as 
an adjective, to express what is likely or about to happen : as, 

urbs est casura, the city is about to fall. 1 
It is also used, more rarely, to express purpose : as, 
venit auditurus, he came to hear. 

c. The Perfect participle is used to form certain tenses of the 
passive, and often has simply an adjective meaning : as, 

vocatus est, he was {has been) called j tectus, sheltered j 
acceptus, acceptable j ictus, having been struck. 

Note. — There is no perfect active or present passive participle in Latin. The 
perfect participle of deponents, however, is generally used in an active sense, as 
secutus, having followed. In other cases some different construction is used for 
these missing participles : as, cum venisset, having come (when he had come) ; 
equitatu praemisso, having sent forward the cavalry (the cavalry having 
been sent forward) ; dum verberatur, while being struck (= rvrrroixevoq). 

d. The Gerundive (ending in ndus) has, as an adjective, the 
meaning ought or must : as, audiendus est, he must be heard. 2 

But, in the oblique cases, it is oftener to be translated as if it 
were an active participle, governing the word it agrees with : as, 
ad petendam pacem, to seek peace. 

e. The Participles may all be used as simple adjectives, and the 
present and perfect participles are sometimes compared as adjec- 
tives : as, amantior, more fond ; dflectissimus, dearest. 

f The Present and Perfect participles are (like adjectives) often 
used as nouns, especially in the plural : as, regentes, rulers (those 
ruling) ; mortui, the dead. 

g. As an adjective, the participle is often used to describe some 
special circumstance : as, 

morituri vos salutamus, we at the point of death salute you. 



1 In this construction it is used with the tenses of the verb TO be, forming 
what is called the " First Periphrastic Conjugation " (see page jy). 

2 The Gerundive, used as a predicate with the verb to be, forms the " Second 
Periphrastic Conjugation." 



62 Etymology : Structure of the Verb. 

Gerund and Supine. 

114. The Gerund and Supine are used as follows : — 

a. The Gerund is, in form, the neuter singular of the Gerund- 
ive. It is a verbal noun, corresponding to the English "participial 
infinitive " in -ing : as, loquendi causa, for the sake of speaking. 

Note. — In this use the Gerund is found only in the oblique 
cases. The nominative is supplied by the Infinitive : as, 

scrlbere est utile, writing (to write) is useful j but, 
ars scribendi, the art of writing. 

b. The Supine is in form a noun of the Fourth declension, 
found only in the accusative (ending in turn, sum) and ablative 
(ending in tu, su), which are sometimes called the Former and 
the Latter Supine. The former is used after verbs and the latter 
after adjectives : as, 

1 . venit spectatum, he came to see. 

2. mirabile dictu, wonderful to tell. 

Tenses. 

115. The tenses of the verb are of two classes, viz. : 

1. Of continued action. 
i. Present : scribo, I a7n writing. 

2. Imperfect : scribebam, I was writing. 

3. Future: scribam, / shall write. 

2. Of completed action. 

4. Perfect : scripsi, / have written. 

5. Pluperfect: scripseram, / had written. 

6. Future Perfect : scripsero, / shall have written. 

a. The tenses have, in general, the same meaning as the cor- 
responding tenses in English ; but are in some cases distinguished 
more accurately in their use. Thus — 

1. The Future or Future Perfect is used where we may use the 
Present in subordinate clauses : as, 

si quid habebo dabo, if I have [shall have] any thing, I will give. 
cum venero scribam, when I come [shall have come], / will write. 

2. The Present and Imperfect are used to express continued 
action where English uses tenses of completed action : as, 

jam diu aegroto, I have long been [and still am] sick. 
Here the Perfect, aegiotavi, would imply that I am now well. 



Tenses ; Personal Endings. 6$ 

b. The Perfect and Imperfect are both used to denote past 
time ; the former to tell a simple fact, the latter to describe a 
continued or customary action, or a condition of things} Thus — 

Perfect : scripsit, he wrote. 

Imperfect : scribebat, he was writing, or used to write. 

c. The Perfect has two separate uses, distinguished as definite 
and historical, corresponding to the Perfect (compound) and the 
simple Past (or preterite) in English : as, 

scripsit, he has written (definite) ; he wrote (historical). 

d. The tenses of the Subjunctive Mood are chiefly used in 
dependent clauses, following the rule of the Sequence of Tenses ; 
but have also special idiomatic uses (see Syntax, 286). 

Personal Endings. 

116. Verbs have regular terminations for each of the 
three Persons, 2 both singular and plural, active and 
passive, viz. : — 

Sing. ACTIVE. PASSIVE. 

1 . m, o, or i 3 : am-o, / love. r : amo-r, / am loved. 

2. s : ama-s, thou lovest. ris or re : ama-ris, thou art loved. 

3. t : 4 ama-t, he loves. tur : ama-tur, he is loved. 

Plur. ACTIVE. PASSIVE. 

1. mus : ama-mus, we love, mur : ama-mur, we are loved. 

2. tis : ama-tis, you love, mini : ama-mini, you are loved. 

3. nt : ama-nt, they love, ntur : ama-ntur, they are loved. 



1 In Latin, and in the languages derived from Latin (as Italian and French), 
there are two past tenses, — the Perfect or Preterite (aorist) which merely states 
that the fact took place ; and the Imperfect, which is used for description, or to 
indicate that the action was in progress: as, lo?tgius prosequi vet u it, quod loci 
7iatura7n ignorabat (B. G. v. 9). In the Northern languages (Germanic or 
Gothic, including English), the same tense serves for both. 

2 These terminations are fragments of old Pronouns, whose signification is 
thus added to that of the Verb-stem (compare page 14, Note 1). 

3 The present indicative of the active voice has lost the m, and ends in the 
modified stem-vowel o 9 except in sum and inquam. Here o stands for m 
blended in sound with a preceding vowel {amo = ama-m). The perfect, future 
perfect, and the future in bo have also lost the m. 

4 All Latin words ending in t, except at (ast), aut, sat, et, -met, post, tot; 
quot, id, caput, and their compounds, are verbs in the third person ; all in nt are in 
the 3d person plural. In dumtaxat, licet, and the indefinite pronouns in -libet 
the meanings of the verbs are disguised (See also 8, p. 3). 



64 Etymology : Forms of the Verb. 

a. The perfect Indicative (active voice) has the special termina- 
tions : — 

Sing. 2. -sti: amav-i-sti, thou lovedst. 
Plur. 2. -stis : amav-i-stis, you loved. 

3. -erunt or -ere : amav-erunt (ere), they loved. 

b. The Imperative has the following terminations : 

Sing. ACTIVE. PASSIVE. 

2. — : am a, love thou. re : ama-re, be thou loved. 

3. to : ama-to, let him love. tor : ama-tor, let him be loved. 
Plur. 

2. te, tote : ama-te, love ye. mini : ama-mini, be ye loved. 

3. nto : ama-nto, let them love, ntor : ama-ntor, let them be loved. 

2.-FORMS OF THE VERB. 

117. All Latin Verb-forms are made up of three 
parts, viz. : — 

1. The Root (see 22) ; often variously modified, so as to form 

what is called a Stem. 

2. The Signs of Tense or Mood. 

3. The Personal Endings. 

Thus in the word voca-vi-t, the Root is voc, modified into 
the verb-stem voca-, which by the addition of ui (vi) becomes the 
perfect tense vocavi ; and to this is added the personal ending 
(t) of the third person singular. 

Nature and Origin of Verb-Forms. 

In the Indicative and Subjunctive Present, in the Imperative, and, in some 
cases, in the Future, the terminations are added directly to a modified form of the 
Root, called the Present Stem. This Stem, in three out of four methods of 
conjugation (the ist, 2d, and 4th conjugations), also appears in all parts of the 
verb, including the noun and adjective forms, and is accordingly called the Verb- 
Stem. In the Present Subjunctive of all the conjugations, and in the Future of 
the 3d and 4th, however, there are modifications of the verb-stem of various origin. 1 

In the Perfect in a few verbs, the terminations are added directly to a 
different modification of the Root, called the Perfect Stem : as in do, dedi. 



1 These modifications, in the ist conjugation, and the Future of the 3d and 
4th, are caused by the addition of a verbal form (optative from the root YA, to go) to 
the Stem. In the other cases, their origin is not certain ; but it is supposed to be 
the same as that of the stem-vowels themselves, corresponding to that found 
in the Greek Subjunctive. (See Note, p. 72; p. 74: 126. a-d). 



Note on the Verb-Stems. 65 

All other true verb-forms are compounded with a suffix (auxiliary), originally a 
verb, which already contained the personal endings : as vocd-bat, vocd-bit, vocd-ret, 
vocd-verat, vocd-verit, vocd-visset. Thus the signs of mood and tense appear to 
be inserted between the Verb-stem (or Root) and the personal endings, though 
strictly they were not so inserted. But the first person of the Perfect, whether 
formed by a modification of the root as in de-di, or a verbal suffix as in vocd-vi, 
man-si, loses its final vowel, and is treated as a new stem, to which other verbal 
suffixes are added, likewise containing the personal endings. 

The Perfect and Future Participles, and the Supine, though strictly noun- 
forms with separate suffixes, agree in having the first letter of their suffix (t) the 
same, with the same phonetic changes, as cds-um (for cad-tum), cds-urus. 

These forms naturally divide into three groups, in which in fact they appeared 
to the Romans themselves, who had very early become unconscious of their deriva- 
tion. Hence, verbs may be formed upon three Stems (partly real, partly supposed) 
by adding Verbal Endings, which include signs of Tense and Mood as well as 
Personal Endings, and (in the case of the Infinitive and Participles) even noun 
and adjective terminations. These Stems are the Present, the Perfect, and 
the Supine Stem. 

Verb-Endings. 

118. The scheme of Verb-Endings, 1 as they are formed 
by suffixes, together with personal endings, is as follows : 

1 The origin and meaning of some of these verb-endings may be given as 
follows. The suffix bam is an imperfect of bhu, which appears in fui, futurus, 
fio, the Greek </>uw, and English be; — rem (for sera) is an optative or subjunc- 
tive imperfect of es, which appears in sum, elfxC, am, &c. ; — bo is a future, and 
vi a perfect, of bhu ; — si is a perfect of es, and is kindred with the aorist- 
ending <ra, though not of the same formation ; — erim is an optative form or 
subjivnctive present of es, the same form originally as sim ; — ero (for es-io) is 
the future of esse ; issem = essem ; isse = esse. Thus these terminations are 
seen to have the same force as Auxiliary verbs in English. 

The i of the Perfect, which in early Latin is always long (ei, i, e) except 
before mus, is of doubtful origin. It is probably in all cases a part of the stem, 
as it is in dedi, steti, where it takes the place of the vowel a. In the suffixes 
vi (=fui) and si (=Skr. dsa), and in the perfects of consonant-roots, it seems 
to be, but probably is not, a mere connecting vowel. The s before ti and 
tis is also anomalous. Most scholars regard it as a remnant of es : but it may be, 
like the others, of pronominal origin. 

The Passive is a peculiar Latin middle (or reflexive) form, made by adding 
se to the forms of the active voice, with some abrasion of their endings (the 
original form of se 9 sva, like self, was not limited to the third person). Thus 
ajnor = amo-se, amaris = a7nasi-se, amatur = amati-se. The above view seems 
the most probable, in spite of some objections. The ending mini in the second 
person plural of the passive is a remnant of the participial form found in the 
Greek -jxej/os, supplanting the proper form, which does not appear in Latin. 



66 



Etymology : Forms of the Verb. 



§28 






i 


. — Verba 


I Forms. 






3. a 




ACTIVE. 




PASSIVE. 




INDIC. 


SUBJ. Present. INDIC. 


SUBJ. 




Sing. i. 


o 1 


■;■** 


m 1 


or 


.. 


r 




2. 


s 


« *" +* 


s 


ris or re 


Ig 


ris or re 




3- 
Plur. i. 

2. 

3- 


t 

mus 

tis 

nt 




t 

mus 
tis 
nt 


tur 
mur 
mini 
ntur 




tur 
mur 
mini 
ntur 










Imperfect. 






Sing. i. 


bam 1 




rem 


bar 


rer 




2. 


bas 




res 


baris (re) 


reris (re) 




3- 


bat 




ret 


batur 


retur 




/Y&r. i. 


bamus 




remus 


bamur 


remur 




2. 


batis 




retis 


bamini 


remini 




3- 


bant 




rent 

Fut 


bantur 

are. 


rentur 




•SV/zg'. i. 


i. ii. 

bo 


iii. iv. ^ 
am 1 


eg is g4 


i. ii. iii 

bor ax 1 


LV. 


' 




2. 


bis 


es 


beris (re) ^ris 


(re) 


P 




3- 
/V&r. i. 


bit 
bimus 


et \ 

#mus 




bitur <?tur 
bimur ^mur 






2. 

3- 


bitis 
bunt 


<?tis 
*nt J 


* a tn fe 


bimini /mini 
buntur ^ntur 












Per* 


ect. 






Sing. I. 

2. 


I 

istl 




erim 
eris 


tum ) list 


sim 
sis 




3- 


it 




erit 


sit 




/Y«r. i. 

2. 


imus 
istis 




erimus 
eritis 




slmus 
sltis 




3- 


erunt or ere 


erint 


sint 










Plupe 


rfect. 






£"/#£•. i. 

2. 


eram 
eras 




issem 
isses 




essem 

esses 




3- 


erat 




isset 


esset 




/Y#r. i. 

2. 


eramus 
eratis 


issemus 
issetis 


. . •, ( eramus 
ta > j erant 


> essemus 
essetis 




3- 


erant 




issent 


essent 










Future 


Perfect. 






6V;z£-. i. 

2. 

3- 


ero 
eris 
erit 






-tus(ta,( er ? 

, \ ' -< ens 

tura > J erit 






Plur. i. 

2. 


erimus 
eritis 






-ti(tae,5"1? lus 






3- 


erint 









1 For some changes of Stem see 126. 



Forms of the Verb ; The Verb esse. 

Imperative. 



Sing. 2. — 

3- to 

Plur. 2. te, tote 

3- nto 



re 
tor 

mini 
ntor 



67 



2. — Noun and Adjective Forms. 

Infinitive. 



Pres. re (Pres. stem) 
Per/, isse (Perf. stem) 
Put. turus (a, urn) esse 



Pres. ns, ntis 
p er f. 

Put. turus, a, um 



i. ii. iv. ri, iii. i (old rier, ier) 
tus (ta, turn) esse 
turn in (see 147. c) 



Participle. 



tus, ta, turn 
Ger. ndus, a, um 



Supine, turn, tu 



ESSE and its Compounds. 

119. The verb esse, 1 to be, is both irregular and de- 
fective, having no gerund or supine, and no participle 
but the future. 



1 The root of the verb esse is es-, which in the imperfect is changed to er- 
(see 11. a), and in many cases is shortened to s-. Some of its modifications, as 
found in several languages more or less distinctly related to Latin, may be seen in 
the following Table; — the " Indo-European " being the primitive or theoretic 
form, and the form syam corresponding to the Latin sim {siem) : — 



Ind-Eur. 


Sanskrit. 


Greek. 


Latin. 


Lithuanian 


as-mi 


as-mi 


sydm (opt.) 


efijULif 


s-um 


es-mi 


as-si 


as-i 


syds 


4<rai1i 


es 


es-i 


as-ti 


as-ti 


sydt 


iarl 


es-t 


es-ti 


as-masi 


s-mas 


sydma 


4<TfJiev 


s-umus 


es-me 


as-tasi 


s-tha 


sydta 


eW 


es-tis 


es-te 


as-anti 


s-anti 


syus 


eyrHi 

t Old Form 


s-unt 


es-ti 



The Perfect and Supine stems, fui, futuro-, are kindred with the Greek e<£v, and 
with the English be. 

The present participle, which should be sens (compare Sanskrit sant), appears 
in that form in ab-sens, prae-sens 5 and as ens (compare Z>v) in pot-ens. 
The simple form ens is sometimes found in late or philosophical Latin as a parti- 
ciple or abstract noun, in the forms ens, being ; entia, things which are. 



68 



Etymology : The Verb esse. 



§29 



PRESENT. 

Principal Parts : sum 

Indicative. 
Sing, l. sum, lam. 

2. es, thou art (you are). 
est, he (she, it) is. 
sumus, we are. 
estis, you are. 
sunt, they are. 



3- 
Plur. i. 

2. 

3- 



Sing, i . eram, / was. 

2. eras, you were. 

3. erat, he (she, it) was 
Plur. 1. eramus, we were. 

2. eratis, you were. 

3. erant, they were. 



Sing. 1. ero, I shall be. 

2. eris, you will be. 

3 . erit, he will be. 
Plur. 1 . erimus, we shall be. 

2. eritis, you will be. 

3 . erunt, they will be. 



INFTN. PERF. FUT. PART. 

esse ful futurus. 

Present. Subjunctive. 

sim, may I be J 1 

sis, be thou, or may you be. 

sit, let him be (may he be) . 

simus, let us be. 

sitis, be ye, or 7nay ye be. 

sint, let them be (may they be). 
Imperfect. 

essem, I should be. 

esses, you would be. 

esset, he would be. 

essemus, we should be. 

essetis, you would be. 

essent, they would be. 
Future. 

[futurus sim see note, p. 77] 



Sing. 1 . ful, / was (have been). 

2. fuistljj/tfz/ were. 

3. fuit, he was. 
Plur. 1. fuimus, we were. 

2. bxistis, you were. 

3. fuerunt, they were. 



Perfect. 



fuerim (see Note below) 

fueris 

fuerit 

fu erimus 

fu eritis 

fuerint 



1 The translations of the subjunctive here given show the most frequent mean- 
ings of their forms when used iiidepcndently. For the numerous dependent 
meanings of the subjunctive, see Syntax. The most common may be seen in the 
following table : — 

t. sit, let him be (in apodosis, he would be) ; si sit (in protasis), if 
he should be ; cum sit, since he is. 

2. esset, he would be; si esset, if he were; cum esset, when (or 

since) he was. 

3. fuerit, siippose he was (or has been) ; si fuerit, if he should have 

been ; cum fuerit, since he was ; ne fueris (prohib. ), be thou not. 

4. fuisset, he would have been ; si fuisset, // he had been ; cum 

fuisset, when (or since) he had been. 






The Verb esse and its Compounds. 



6 9 



Pluperfect. 



Sing 


I. 

2. 


Plur 


3- 

I. 




2. 




3- 


Sing. 


1. 




2. 


Plur. 


3- 

1. 




2. 




3- 



fueram, I had been. 
fueras, you had been. 
fuerat, he had been. 
fueramus, we had been. 
fueratis, you had been. 
fuerant, they had been. 



fuissem, / should have been. 
fuisses, you would have been. 
fuisset, he would have been. 
fuissemus, we shotdd have been. 
fuissetis, you would have been. 
fuissent, they would have been. 



Future Perfect, 
fuero, I shall have been. 
fueris, you will have been. 
fuerit, he will have been. 
fuerimus, we shall have been. 
fueritis, you will have been. 
fuerint, they will have been. 

Imperative. 

Present. Ss, be thou. este, be ye. 

Future, esto, thou shall be. estote, ye shall be. 

esto, he shall be> sunto, they shall be. 

Infinitive. 
Present, esse, to be. 
Perfect, fuisse, to have been. 
Future, fore or futurus esse, to be about to be. 
Future Participle, futurus, a, um, about to be. 

Rare Forms. — Indicative: Future, escit, escunt (strictly an 
inchoative present). Subjunctive : Present, stem, sies, siet, sient j 
fuam,fuas, fuat, fuant j Perfect, fuvimus j Pluperfect, fuvisset. 
For essem, etc., forem, fores, foret, forent are often used. 

120. The forms of the verb esse appear in the follow- 
ing compounds : — 

a. Esse is compounded, without any change of inflection, with 
the prepositions ab, ad, de, in, inter, ob, prae, pro (prod), sub, 
super. In the compound prodesse, to profit, pro retains its 
original d when followed by e : as, prosum, prodes, prodest, 
prosumus, prodestis, prosunt. 

b. It is also compounded with the adjective potis or pote, able, 
in the verb posse. Its inflection, with that of prodesse, is given 
in the following : — 



70 



Etymology : Tlie Regular Verb. 

Present. 



possum, / can. possim 

potes, you can. possis 

potest, he can. possit 

possumus, we can. possimus 

potestis, you can. possitis 

possunt, they can. possint 



prosum, I help, prosim 

prodes prosis 

prodest prosit 

prosumus prosimus 

prodestis prositis 

prosunt prosint 



Imperfect, 
poteram, / could. possem proderam prodessem 

Future, 
potero, / shall be able. prodero, / shall help. 

Perfect, 
potui, / could. potuerim pi of ui, Z helped, profuerim 

Pluperfect, 
potueram potuissem | profueram profuissem 

Future Perfect, 
potuero, / shall have been able. profuero, / shall have helped. 

Imperative. 

prodes, prodesto, &c. 

Infinitive. 

Pr. posse Perf. potuisse Pr. prodesse Perf. profuisse 

Participles, 
potens (adj.), powerful. profuturus, about to help. 

3.-THE REGULAR VERB. 
The Three Stems. 

121. The parts of the Latin verb may be formed upon 
three different stems, 1 called the Present, the Perfect, 
and the Supine Stem (see 117). 

a. The tenses of continued action, both active and passive, 
together with the Gerund and Gerundive, are formed upon the 
Present Stem. 

b. The tenses of completed action in the active voice are formed 
upon the Perfect Stem. 

c. The Perfect and Future Participles and the Supine are formed 
upon the Supine Stem. 2 



1 In most verbs of the ist, 2d, and 4th conjugations, the Present Stem is used as 
the Verb-Stem, from which the others are derived in the manner hereafter shown. 

2 Strictly these have no common stem, but are formed with special suffixes 
(to-, turo-, tu-). As, however, the form to which they are added is the same 
for each, and as the suffixes all begin with t, it is usual to give the name supine' 



The Four Co7ijugatio?is. yi 

The Four Conjugations. 

122. There are in Latin four principal forms of Present 
Stems, ending respectively in a, 5, e, L With this 
difference of stem most of the other differences of 
conjugation coincide. 

a. Verbs are accordingly classed in four regular Conjugations, 
distinguished by the stem-vowel which appears before -re in the 
Present Infinitive Active. 

b. The Principal Parts of a verb which determine its conju- 
gation throughout are — 

1. The Present Indicative [showing the present stem 

2. The Present Infinitive ) and the conjugation ; 

3. The Perfect Indicative, showing the perfect ste7n ;. 

4. The Supine, showing the supine stem. 

c. The regular forms of the conjugation are seen in the following : 

1. amo, amare, amavi, amatum, to love. 

Present and Verb-stem, amd-, Perfect stem, amdv-, Supine stem, amdt-. 

2. deleo, delere, delevi, deletum, to destroy. 
Present and Verb-stem, dele-, Perfect stem, delev-, Supine stem, delet-. 

3. tego, tegere, texi, tectum, to cover. 

Root teg : Present stem, tege-, Perfect stem, tex-, Supine stem, tect-. 

4. audio, audire, audivi, auditum, to hear. 

Present and Verb-stem, audi-. Perfect stem, audiv-, Supine stem, audit-. 

In the second conjugation, however, the characteristic § rarely 
appears in the perfect and supine : thus the type of this conjuga- 
tion is — 2. moneo, monere, monui, monitum, to warn. 

d. In many verbs the principal parts take the forms of two or 
more different conjugations (See 134, p. 87) : as, 

1. 2. domo, domare, domui, domitum, to subdue. 

2. 3. maneo, manere, mansi, mansum, to remain. 

3. 4. peto, peter e, petivi, petitum, to seek. 

4. 3. vincio, vincire, vinxi, vinctum, to bind. 

In these the conjugation is denoted by the first or present stem. 

Note. — The conjugation of verbs used only in the Passive 
(deponents) is determined by the passive form of the infinitive ; 
thus patior, pati, passus is of the Third conjugation. 



stem to the form in t. The participle in to- corresponds to the Greek verbal tos-; 
that in turo- is a development of the noun of agency ending in -tor (as victor, 
victurus) ; that in tu- is an abstract noun of the fourth declension (see 125). 



I 30 



72 Etymology : TJie Regular Verb. 

Present Stem. 

123. The Present Stem is formed from the Root in 
all regular verbs in one of the following ways : ' — 

a. In the First, Second, and Fourth conjugations, by adding a 
long vowel (a, e, 1) to the Root whose vowel is sometimes changed : 
as, voca-re (voc), mone-re (men, orig. man), sopi-re (sop). 

b. In the Third conjugation, by adding a short vowel (e, 1) : 
as, tege-re^ ali-tis. This may be preceded — 

1. By?z, t, sc, or y: 2 as, tem-ne-r e (tem), cre-sce-re (cre). 

2. By i, which in most forms disappears in inflection (see 126. c.) : 

as, fug-i-o, fug-e-re (fug). 3 

c. The root may also be changed — 

1. By lengthening the vowel : as, dic-e-re (dic), caed-e-re (cad). 

2. By reduplication : as, gi-gn-e-re (gen). 

3. By inserting m or n (nasal) : as, find-e-re (fid) ; tang-e-re (tag). 

d. Some verbs are formed from a noun-stem irregularly treated 
as a Root 1 as, statu-e-re (status), aestuare (aestu-s). 

e. A few isolated forms have the simple root : as, fer-re, fer-t; 
esse, vel-le, vul-t. A few have roots ending in a vowel. 

Perfect Stem. 

124. The Perfect Stem 4 is formed as follows : — 



1 The so-called " connecting vowel " is really a part of the stem. The long vow- 
els a, e, z, of the First, Second, and Fourth conjugations, are different corruptions 
of a suffix aya, which in the original language was added to Roots in one form of 
Present Stems. The e of the Third conjugation comes from an original A, or some 
other suffix ending in A added to the Root to form other kinds of Present Stems 
{fero = bhardmi, ferimus =■ bhardmas) : as, capio, tollo (ya), temno (na), mitto 
(ta). These suffixes may be traced in the following parallel inflections : — 



vach-aya-mi 

vach-aya-si 

vach-aya-ti 


voc-(a)-o 

voc-d-s 

voc-a-t 


2. vah-a-mi 
vah-a-si 
vah-a-ti 


veh-o 

veh-i-s 

veh-i-t 


3. pa^-ya-mi 
pac-3-a-si 
pag-ya-ti 


spec-i-o 
spec-i-s 
spec-i-t 


vach-aya-mas 
vach-aya-tha 
vach-aya-nti 


voc-d-mus 

voc-d-tis 

voc-a-nt 


vah-a-mas 
vah-a-tha 
vah-a-nti 


veh-i-mus 
veh-i-t is 
veh-u-nt 


pag-ya-mas 
pag-ya-tha 
pag-ya-nti 


spec-i-mns 

spec-i-tis 

spec-i-unt 



In all other cases where there appears to be a connecting vowel, it comes from a 
verb-stem being used irregularly as a Root, — just as in finxi (root fig, present 
Jingo), the n of the present has forced itself into the perfect : as in soni-tus, 
moni-tus, ori-turus (compare or-tus : so domi-tor compared with ardtor)) 
feri-mus (compare fert), edi-mus (compare est = edt). 2 As, pel-lo for pel-yo. 

3 For the verbs thus formed, see p. 83. The i stands for an original y sound. 

4 The final i of the Perfect is probably to be regarded as a part of the stem. 
Its origin, however, is doubtful ; and it may be more convenient in practice to 
take for the Stem the part preceding the tense endings z, cram, ero, &c. 



Formation of Tenses. 73 

a. The suffix v (u) is added to the stem : as, vocd-v-i, audi-v-ij 
or to the root : as, so7i-u-i (sond-re), mon-u-i (tnone-re). 

Note. — In a few verbs the vowel of the root is transposed and 
lengthened: as, strd-v-i (sterno, star), spre-v-i (sperno, spar). 

b. The suffix s is added to the Root : as, carp-s-i, tex-i (teg). 
Note. — The modifications of the present stem, or a lost or 

imaginary stem, sometimes appear in the perfect : as, Jinx-i (fig), 
sanx-i (sac), petl-v-i (pet). 

c. The Root is reduplicated by prefixing the first consonant — 
generally with e, sometimes with the root-vowel : as, ce-cid-i (cado), 
to-tond-i (tondeo). 

Note. — In fid-i (findd), scid-i (sando), the reduplication has 
been lost, leaving the root merely. 

d. The root- vowel is lengthened : as, eg-i (dg-o),/ug-z (fugio). 

e. The root has the same form as in the present : as, vert-i 
(verto), solv-i (solvo). 

Supine Stem. 

125. The Supine Stem 1 is formed by adding t (or 
euphonically s) — 

a. To the verb-stem : as, amd-t-um^ dele-t-u?n, audi-t-um. 

b. To the Root, with or without 1 : as, cap-t-um (capio), moni- 
t-um {moneo), cds-um (for cad-t-um). 

Note. — The modifications of the present stem, or a lost or 
imaginary one, sometimes appear in the Supine : as, tinc-t-um 
(tmgo), tens-tun (Jendo), petT-t-um (peto). 

Formation of the Tenses. 

Note. — The tenses of the regular verb maybe formed upon 
the several verb-stems by adding to these stems the verb-endings 
(p. 66), making in the Present stem the changes indicated below. 

126. The forms in the several conjugations, as deter- 
mined by the Present Stem, with the regular formation 
of the Perfect and Supine stems, and the changes of the 
stem-vowel, may be given thus : — 

a. The First Conjugation includes all verbs which add a to the 
root to form the present stem, as amd-rej with a few whose root 

1 For the modifications of the Supine Stem, see 121. c, Note. 



74 Etymology : The Regular Verb. 

ends in a. 1 In these the perfect and supine stems regularly add 
v, t, to the present stem : 2 as, amd-v-i, a?nd-t-um. The stem- 
vowel a is lost before o (as amo = ama-o), and in the present 
subjunctive is changed to e : as, ame-s, ame-mus. 

b. The Second Conjugation includes all verbs which add e to 
form the present stem: as, mone-re; with a few whose root ends 
in e. 3 In a few the Perfect and Supine stems add v (u), t : as, 
dele-v-i, dele-t-um ; but, in most, they are added to the root in the 
perfect, and to a weaker stem in 1 in the supine : as, mon-u-i, 
moni-t-u?n* In the pres. subj. a is added : as, mone-ds, ?none-amus. 

c. The Third Conjugation includes all verbs (not irregular) 
which add e to form the Present stem : as, lege- re, cape-re ; with a 
few whose root ends in e : as, se-re-re. b All the forms of the per- 
fect and supine stems are found in this conjugation. 6 The stem- 
vowel e is lost before o, becomes u before nt, and i before the other 
endings of the indicative and imperative : as, tego, tegit, teguntj in 
the imperfect indicative it becomes e: as, tegebamj pres. subj., a. 

Verbs in io retain i before a, o, u, and e : as, capiat, capiunt, 
capiebat, capies, capiet ; but lose it elsewhere : as, capit, caperet. 

d. The Fourth Conjugation includes all verbs which add I : as, 
audl-re. 1 In these the Perfect and Supine stems regularly add 
v, t, to the verb- stem : as, audi-v-i, audi-t-um* The endings of 
the third conjugation are added in the 3d person plural of the pres- 
ent (indie, and imperat.), in the imperf. and fut. indicative, and in 
the pres. subjunctive : as, audi-unt, audi-ebat, audi-etis, audi-at. 

e. The Imperative (2d person singular) is the same as the 
Present Stem : as, amd, mone, teg2, audi. But verbs in io of the 
Third conjugation omit i : as, cape. 

f. The tenses of completed action are all regularly formed by 
adding the tense-endings (given on p. 66) to the Perfect Stem : as, 
a?nav-i, amav-erani, a7nav-ero, a7nav-erim, amav-issem, a?ndv-isse. 

g. The tenses of completed action in the Passive voice are 
formed by adding to the Perfect Participle the corresponding 
tenses of continued action of the verb esse : as, Perfect, amdtus 
sum ; Plup. amdtus eram, etc. 



1 Viz., da-re, fd-ri, fla-re, nd-re, std-re. 2 The present stem is thus the 
verb-stem. For exceptions, see p. 79. 3 These zrtfle-rc, ne-re, re-ri. * For 
exceptions, see p. 81. 6 Reduplicated from se (cf. sdtum). 6 See Lists, pp. 
84, 85 ; the perfect, however, is never formed from the present stem. 7 A few- 
are formed from noun-stems, as fiiii-re, and a few roots end in i ; but these are 
not distinguishable in form. 8 For exceptions, see p. 87. 



Synopsis ; Special Forms. 



75 



127. A Synopsis of the forms of the Verb (regular 
of the first conjugation), arranged according to the 
several Stems, may be given as follows: — 



Perfect Stem, amav- 

PERF. PLUPERF. FUT. PERF. 

amavi, amaveram, amavero 
amaverim, amavissem 



Present Stem, ama- Active Voice 

PRES. IMPERF. FUT. 

Indic. amo amabam amabo 

Subj. amem amarem 

Imper. 2. ama amato — — 

Infin. amare amavisse 

Passive Voice. Supine Stem, amat- 

Indic. amor amabar amabor amatus sum, — eram, — ero 

Subj. amer amarer amatus sim, — essem 

Imper. 2. amare amator 

Infin. amari amatus esse — amatum iri 

Part. Act. amans, amaturus; Pass, amatus, amandus 

Special Forms. 

128. The following special forms are found in the 
conjugation of many verbs: — 

a. In tenses formed upon the Perfect stem, v between two 
vowels is often suppressed, and (unless a or e follows i or u) the 
second vowel is merged in the first: as, amasse = amavisse ; 
flestis = flevistis ; audieram = audiveram ; nosse = novisse. 
This is especially frequent in verbs of the fourth conjugation, 
and is regular in the compounds of eo : as, abiit for abivit. 

b. In many forms s with its vowel is suppressed in like manner 
when it would be repeated : as, dixti for dixisti. 

c. Four verbs — dico, duco, facio, fero — with their com- 
pounds, drop the vowel-termination of the Imperative, making 
die, due, fac, fer ; but compounds in -ficio retain it, as confice. 
The forms dice, duce, face (never fere), occur in early Latin. 

d. For the Imperative of scio, the future form scito is always 
used in the singular, and scitote usually in the plural. 

e. The following ancient forms are chiefly found in poetry : — 
i. In the fourth conjugation -ibam, -Ibo for -iebam, -iam (fut). 

2. In the present subjunctive -im: as in duim, perduim, re- 
tained in religious formulas (compare sim, velim) . 

3. In the perf subj. and fut. perf. -so, -sim: as, faxo, faxi?7i. 

4. In the passive infinitive -ier : as, vocdrier for vocdri. 

5. A form in assere is found as a future infinitive. 



76 



Etymology ; The Regular Verb. 



§31 



First Conjugation. — i. Active Voice. 

PRESENT. INFIN. PERFECT. SUPINE. 

Principal Parts : amo amare amavi amatum 



Indicative. 

amo, / love. 

amas, you love, 

am at, he (she, it) loves. 

amamus, we love. 

amatis, y ou love. 

amant, they love. 

amabam, / loved. 
amabas, you loved. 
amabat, he loved. 
amabamus, we loved. 
amabatis, you loved. 
amabant, they loved. 

amabo, / shall love. 
amabis, you will love. 
amabit, he will love. 
amabimus, we shall love. 
amabitis,^^ will love. 
amabunt, they will love. 

amavi, / loved. 
am a vis ti, you loved. 
amavit, he loved. 
amavimus, we loved. 
amavistis, you loved. 
amaverunt (ere), they loved. 



Subjunctive. 

Present. 

am em, may I love / 
amis, love thou. 
amet, let him love. 
am emus, let us love. 
ametis, love ye. 
anient, let the7n love. 
Imperfect. 

amarem, / should love. 
amares, you would love, 
amaret, he would love. 
amaremus, we should love. 
amaretis, you would love. 
amarent, they would love. 

Future. 

[amaturus sim] 



Perfect. 

amaverim (see note, p. 6S) 

amaveris 

am aver it 

amaverimus 

amaveritis 

amaverint 



amaveram, / had loved. 
amaveras, you had loved. 
amaverat, he had loved. 
amaveramus, we had loved. 
amaveratis, you had loved. 
amaverant, they had loved. 

Future 

amavero, / shall have loved. 
amaveris, you will have loved. 
amaverit, he will have loved. 
amaverimus, we shall have loved. 
amaveritis, you will have loved. 
amaverint, they will have loved. 



Pluperfect. 

amavissem, I should have loved. 
amavisses, you would have 
amavisset, he would have 
amavissemus, we should have 
amavissetis,j/0^ would have 
amavissent, they would have 

Perfect. 



First Conjugation ; Active Voice. jj 

Singular. Imperative. Plural. 



Pres. 2. ama, love thou. 
Fut. 2. amato, thou shalt love. 
3. amato, he shall love. 



amate, love ye. 
amatote, ye shall love. 
amanto, they shall love. 



Noun and Adjective Forms. 

Infinitive. 

Present, amare, to love. 

Perfect, amavisse, or amasse, to have loved. 

Future, amaturus esse, to be about to love. 

Participles. 
Present, amans, antis, loving. 
Future, amaturus, a, um, about to love. 

Gerund. 
Gen. amandi, of [the act or state of] loving. 
Dat. aman^S,/^ loving (with adjectives). 
Ace. amandum, loving (with ad and inter). 
Abl. amando, by loving. 

Supine. 
amatum, amatu, to love. 

129. The so-called Periphrastic conjugations are formed by 
combining the tenses of esse with the Future Participle (supine- 
stem) 1 and with the Gerundive (present-stem) : as, 

First Periphrastic Conjugation. 

Indicative. Subjunctive. 

Pres. amaturus sum . . . sim, / am about to love. 
Imperf. amaturus eram . . . essem, / was about to love. 
Fut. amaturus ero, / shall be about to love. 
Perf. amaturus fui . . . fuerim 
Plup. amaturus fueram . . . fuissem (F. P. not used.) 

Second Periphrastic Conjugation. 

Pres. amandus sum . . . sim, / am to be loved. 
Imperf. amandus eram . . . essem, /* was to be loved. 
Fut. amandus ero, / shall be [worthy] to be loved. 
Perf. amandus fui . . . fuerim 

Plup. amandus fueram . . . fuissem F. P. . . fuero 



1 This is often necessary in the subjunctive, which has no future form : thus, 
cum venturus sit, since he will come (is about to come). 



§31 



§31 



78 Etymology: The Regular Verb. 



First Conjugation. — 2. Passive Voice. 

PRESENT. IN FIN. PERFECT. 

Principal Parts: amor amari amatus sum 



Indicative. 

amor, / am loved. 
amaris (re), you are loved. 
amatur, he is loved. 
amamur, we are loved. 
amamini, you are loved. 
amantur, they are loved. 



Subjunctive. 

Present. 

amer, may I be loved. 
ameris (re), be thou loved. 
ametur, let him be loved. 
amemur, let us be loved. 
amemini, be ye loved. 
amentur, let the?n be loved. 

Imperfect. 

amarer, I should be loved. 
amareris {xe),you would be loved. 
amaretur, he would be loved. 
amaremur, we should be loved. 
amaremini, you would be loved. 
amarentur, they would be loved. 



amabar, / was loved. 
amabaris (re), you were loved. 
amabatur, he was loved. 
amabamur, we were loved. 
amabamini, you were loved. 
amabantur, they were loved. 

Future. 

amabor, I shall be loved. [futurum sit ut amer] 

amaberis (re), thou wilt {you will) be loved. 
amabitur, he will be loved. 
amabimur, we shall be loved. 
amabirnini, you will be loved. 
amabuntur, they will be loved. 

Perfect. 
amatus sum, / was loved. 
amatus es, you were loved. 
amatus est, he was loved. 
amati sumus, we were loved. 
amatl estis, you were loved. 
amati sunt, they were loved. 



amatus sim (see note, p. 68). 
amatus sis 
amatus sit 

amati simus 
amati sitis 
amati sint 



Pluperfect. 



amatus eram, I had been loved. 
amatus eras, you had been loved. 
amatus erat, he had been loved. 
amati eramus, we had been loved. 
amati eratis, jj/#^ had been loved. 
amati erant, they had been loved. 

Future Perfect. 
amatus ero, / shall have been loved. 
amatus eris, you will have been loved. 
amatus erit, he will have been loved. 
amati erimus, we shall have been loved. 
amati eritis, you will have been loved. 
amati erunt, they will have been loved. 



amatus essem, / should 
amatus esses, you would 
amatus esset, he would 
amati essemus, we should 
amati essetis, you would 
amati essent, they wotrid/ 



have 
£een 
loved. 



First Conjugation ; Passive Voice. 79 

Singular. Imperative. Plural. 

Pres. 2. amare, be thou loved. amamini, be ye loved. 

Fut. 2. amator, thou shalt be loved. 

3. amator, he shall be loved, amantor, they shall be loved. 

Noun and Adjective Forms. 

Infinitive. 
Present, amari, to be loved. 
Perfect, amatus esse, to have been loved. 
Future, amatum iri (amatus fore), to be about to be loved. 

Participles. 
Perfect, amatus, loved (beloved, or having been loved). 
Gerund, amandus, a, um, to-be-loved {lovely). 

Supine. 
amatu, to love or to be loved (with adjectives). 

130. There are about 360 simple verbs of this conjugation, 
most of them formed directly upon a noun or adjective-stem, to 
which they generally give the force and meaning of an active 
verb : as, arnio, to arm (arma) ; caeco, to blind (caecus) ; exsulo, 
to be in exile (exsul). Their conjugation is usually regular, like 
amo ; though of many only a few parts are found in use. 

Those verbs which form their Perfect and Supine stems differ- 
ently are the following. Those marked f have also regular forms, 
and forms preceded by a hyphen are found only in compounds : — 



crepo, crepui, crepit-, resound. 
cubo, cubui, cubit-, lie down. 
do, dare, dedi, dat-, give [da]. 
domo, domui, domit-, subdue. 
frico, fricui, ffrict-, rub. 
juvo (ad-juvo), juvi, jut-, 1 help. 
labo, avi (no sup.), totter. 
mico, micui, glitter. 



neco, t necui, f nect-, kill. 
plico, f -plicui, f -plicit-, fold. 
poto, potavi, t pot-, drink. 
seco, secui, sect-, 1 cut. 
sono, sonui, sonit-, 1 sound. 
sto, steti, stat- (-stit-), stand. 
tono, tonui, tonit-, thunder. 
veto, vetui, vetit-, forbid. 



1 Forms in -aturus* 

Note. — Compounds of these verbs have the following forms : 
crepo : dis-crepui or crepavi. 
do : circum-, inter-, pessum-, satis-, super-, venum-do, dedi, dat-, of the 1st 

conjugation; other compounds are of the 3d (-dere, -didi, -dit-). 
mico : di-miedvi, micdt- ; e-micui, micat-. 
plico: re-, sub- {sup-), multi-plico, plicdvi, plicdt- ; ex-plico (unfold), ui, 

it- ; (explain), avi, at-; impli-co, dvi(ui). dtum (itum). 
sto: con-sto, stiti, stit- (stat-)-, ad-, re-sto, stiti, — ; ante- (anti-), inter-, 

super-sto, steti, — ; circum-sto, steti (stiti), — ; di-sto, no perf. or sup. 



8o 



Etymology : The Regular Verb. 



Second Conjugation* 



Principal Parts 



INDIC. ACTIVE. 



moneo, I warn, 
mones, you warn. 
monet, he warns. 
monemus 
monetis 
monent 

monebam 

monebas 

monebat 

monebamus 

monebatis 

monebant 

monebo 

monebis 

monebit 

monebimus 

monebitis 

monebunt 

monm 

monuisti 

monuit 

monuimus 

monuistis 

monuerunt (re) 

monueram 

monueras 

monuerat 

monueramus 

monueratis 

monuerant 

monuero 

monueris 

monuerit 

monuerimus 

monueritis 

monuerint 



Act. moneo monere monul monitnm 
Pass, moneor moneri monitus sum 

SUBJ. INDIC. PASSIVE. SUBJ. 

Present. 

moneor 
moneris (re) 



moneam 

moneas 

moneat 

moneamus 

moneatis 

moneant 



monetur 
monemur 
monemini 
monentur 



monear 
monearis (re) 
moneatur 

moneamur 
moneamini 
moneantur 



Imperfect. 



monerem 

moneres 

moneret 

moneremus 

moneretis 

monerent 



monebar monerer 

monebaris (re) monerer is (re) 



monuenm 

monueris 

monuerit 

monuerimus 

monueritis 

monuerint 



monebatur 
monebamur 
monebamini 
monebantur 

Future. 

monebor 

moneberis (re) 

monebitur 

monebimur 

monebimini 

monebuntur 

Perfect. 

monitus sum 
monitus es 
monitus est 
moniti sumus 
moniti estis 
moniti sunt 



moneretur 

moneremur 
moneremini 
monerentur 



Pluperfect. 



monuissem 

monuisses 

monuisset 

monuissemus 

monuissetis 

monuissent 

Future 



monitus sim 
monitus sis 
monitus sit 
moniti simus 
moniti sitis 
moniti sint 

monitus essem 
monitus esses 
monitus esset 



monitus eram 

monitus eras 

monitus erat 

moniti eramus moniti essemus 



moniti eratis 
moniti erant 

Perfect. 

monitus ero 
monitus eris 
monitus erit 
moniti erimus 
moniti eritis 
moniti erunt 



moniti essetis 
moniti essent 



Second Conjugation. 



81 



ACTIVE. 


IMPERATIVE. 


PASSIVE 


Sing. 


Plur. 


Sing. 


Plur. 


Pr. mone 


monete 


monere 


monemini 


F. moneto 


monetote 


monetor 






moneto 


monento 


monetor 


monentor 



INFINITIVE. 

Pr. monere Pf. monuisse I Pr. moneri Pf. monitus esse 

F. moniturus esse I F. monitum iri (monitus fore) 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pr. monens Fut. moniturus | Pf. monitus Ger. monendus 

G. monendi, do, dum Supine, monitum, monitu 

131. There are nearly 120 simple verbs of this conjugation, 
most of them denominative verbs of condition, having a corre- 
sponding noun and adjective from the same root, and an inceptive 
in -sco : as, caleo, calor, calidus, calesco ; timeo, timor, timidus. 

Most of the verbs of the second conjugation form their perfect 
and supine like moneo. The following have evi and etum : 
deleo, destroys fleo, weep; neo, spin; vieo, plat; and compounds 
of -pleo, fill; -oleo, grow. The remainder are : — 



algeo, alsi, be cold. 
ardeo, arsi, ars-, burn. 
audeo, ausus sum, dare. 
augeo, auxi, auct-, increase. 
caveo, cavi, caut-, care. 
censeo, censui, cens-, value. 
cieo, civi, cit-, excite. 
doceo, docui, doct-, teach. 
faveo, favi, faut-, favor. 
ferveo, fervi (ferbui), glow. 
foveo, fovi, fot-, cherish. 
frigeo, frixi, be cold. 
fulgeo, fulsi, shine. 
gaudeo, gavisus sum, rejoice. 
haereo, haesi, haes-, cling. 
indulgeo, indulsi, indult-, indulge, 
jubeo, jussi, juss-, order. 
langueo, langui, be faint. 
liqueo, Hqui (-licui), melt. 
luceo, luxi, -luct-, shine. 
lugeo, luxi, luct-, mourn. 
maneo, mansi, mans-, wait. 
misceo, cui, mixt- (mist-), mix. 
mordeo, momordi, mors-, bite. 



moveo, movi, mot-, move. 
mulceo, mulsi, muls-, soothe. 
mulgeo, si (xi), muls- (mulct-), 

milk. 
niveo, nivi (nixi), wink. 
paveo, pzvi,fear. 
pendeo, pependi, pens-, hang. 
prandeo,prandi, prans-, dine. 
rideo, risi, ris-, laugh. 
sedeo, sedi, sess-, sit. 
soleo, solitus sum, be wont. 
sorbeo, sorbui (sorpsi), sorpt-, suck. 
spondeo, spopondi, spons-, pledge. 
strideo, stridi, whiz. 
suadeo, suasi, suas-, urge. 
teneo (-tineo), tenui, tent-, hold. 
tergeo, tersi, ters-, wipe. 
tondeo, totondi, tons-, shear. 
torqueo, torsi, tort-, twist. 
torreo, torrui, tost-, roast. 
turgeo, tursi, swell. 
urgeo, ursi, urge. 
video, vldi, vis-, see. 
voveo, v5vi, vot-, vow. 



Note. — The following (perfect in ut) have no supine stem: 
arceo, calleo, egeo, floreo, horreo, pateo, sileo, studeo, timeo. A 
few (including maereo) have neither perfect nor supine. 



82 



Etymology : The Regular Verb. 



§33 



, 


Third 


Conjugation. 




Principal Parts : Act. 


tego tegere texi 


tectum 




Pass. 


tegor tegi tectus 


sum 


INDIC. ACTIVE. SUBJ 


r. INDIC. PASSIVE. SUBJ. 






Present. 




tego, / cover. 


tegam 




tegor 


tegar 


tegiSjjyou cover, 


tegas 




tegeris (re) 


tegaris (re) 


tegit, he covers. 


tegat 




tegitur 


tegatur 


tegimus 


tegamus 




tegimur 


tegamur 


tegitis 


tegatis 




tegimiiii 


tegamini 


tegunt 


tegant 




teguntur 


tegantur 




] 


Lniperfect. 




tegebam 


tegerem 




tegebar 


tegerer 


tegebas 


tegeres 




tegebaris (re) 


tegereris (re) 


tegebat 


tegeret 




tegebatur 


tegeretur 


tegebamus 


tegeremus 




tegebamur 


tegeremur 


tegebatis 


tegeretis 




tegebamini 


tegeremini 


tegebant 


tegerent 




tegebantur 


tegerentur 






Future. 




tegam 






tegar 




teges 






tegeris (re) 




teget 






tegetur 




tegemus 






tegemur 




tegetis 






tegemim 




tegent 






tegentur 








Perfect. 




texi 


texerim 




tectus sum 


tectus sim 


texisti 


texeris 




tectus es 


tectus sis 


texit 


texerit 




tectus est 


tectus sit 


teximus 


texerimus 




tecti sumus 


tecti simus 


texistis 


texeritis 




tecti estis 


tecti sitis 


texerunt (re) 


texerint 




tecti sunt 


tecti sint 




Pluperfect. 




texeram 


texissem 




tectus eram 


tectus essem 


texeras 


texisses 




tectus eras 


tectus esses 


texerat 


texisset 




tectus erat 


tectus esset 


texeramus 


texissemus 




tecti eramus 


tecti essemus 


texeratis 


texissetis 




tecti eratis 


tecti essetis 


texerant 


texissent 




tecti erant 


tecti essent 




Future Perfect. 




texero 






tectus ero 




texeris 






tectus eris 




texerit 






tectus erit 




texerimus 






tecti erimus 




texeritis 






tecti eritis 




texerint 






tecti erunt 





Third Conjugation. 



83 





ACTIVE. 


IMPERATIVE. 


PASSIVE. 


PR. 

F. 


Sing. Plur. 
2. tege, cover, tegite 

2. tegito tegitote 

3. tegito tegunto 


Sing. 
tegere 
tegitor 
tegitor 


Plur. 
tegimini 

teguntor 


PR. 


tegere 


INFINITIVE. 

Pf. texisse Pr. tegi 


Pf. tectus esse 


F. 


tectums esse 


F. tectum 


iri (tectus fore) 



PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. tegens Fut. tectums | Perf. tectus Ger. tegendus 
Ger. tegendi, do, dum Supine, tectum, tectu 





Verbs ending in io. 




capio capere cepi captum 


capior cap! 


captus sum 




Present. 




capio, / take. 


capiam 


capior 


capiar 


capis, you take. 


capias 


caperis (re) 


capiaris (re) 


capit, he takes. 


capiat 


capitur 


capiatur 


capimus 


capiamus 


capimur 


capiamur 


capitis 


capiatis 


capimini 


capiamini 


capiunt 


capiant 

Impe 


capiuntur 
rfect. 


capiantur 


capiebam 


caperem 

Fut 


| capiebar 

ure. 


caperer 


capiam 


capiemus 


capiar 


capiemur 


capies 


capietis 


capieris (re) 


capiemini 


capiet 


capient 


capietur 


capientur 


Perf. cepi 


ceperim 


captus sum 


captus sim 


Plup. ceperam 


cepissem 


captus eram 


captus essem 


F. P. cepero 




captus ero 




Imp. cape 


capite 


capere 


capimini 


capito 


capitote 


capitor 




capito 


capiunto 


capitor 


capiuntor 


Infin. capere 


cepisse 


capi 


captus esse 


Fut. capturus 


esse 


captum iri 




Part, capiens 


capturus 


captus 


capiendus 



Ger. capiendi, do, dum Sup- captum, tu 
Note. — Verbs of the 3d conjugation ending in io are the 
following : capio, cupio, facio, fodio, fugio, jacio, pario, quatio, 
rapio, sapio, with compounds of -cutio, -Hcio, -spicio. For their 
Principal Parts, see the following list. 



8 4 



Etymology : The Regular Verb. 



132. The following list includes most simple verbs of the third 
conjugation, classed according to the formation of the Perfect stem. 

a. Forming the Perfect stem in s (x) : — 



ango, anxi, anct-, choke. 

carpo, carpsi, carpt-, pluck. 

cedo, cessi, cess-, yield. 

cingo, cinxi, cinct-, bind. 

clango, clanxi, sound. 

claudo, clausi, claus-, shut. 

clepo, clepsi, clept-, steal. 

como, compsi, compt-, comb, deck. 

coquo, coxi, coct-, cook. 

-cutio, -cussi, -cuss-, shake. 

demo, dempsi, dempt-, take away. 

dico, dixi, diet-, say. 

divido, divlsi, divis-, divide. 

duco, duxi, duct-, guide. 

figo, fixi, f\x-,fx. 

fingo [fig], finxi, fid-, fashion. 

flecto, flexi, flex-, bend. 

fluo, fluxi, ftux-,flow. 

frendo, -fresi, fress-, gnash. 

frigo, frixi, frict- (frix-), fry. 

gero, gessi, gest-, carry. 

laedo, laesi, laes-, hurt. 

-licio, -lexi, -lect-, entice (elicui, cit-). 

lingo, linxi, linct-, lick. 

ludo, liisi, \us-,play. 

mergo, mersi, mers-, plunge. 

mitto, misi, miss-, send. [weave. 

necto [nec], nexi (nexui), nex-, to 

nubo, nupsi, nupt-, marry. 

pecto, pexi (pexui), pex-, comb. 

pergo, perrexi, perrect-, go on. 

b. Reduplicated in the Perfect : 

cado, cecidi, cas-, fall. 

caedo, cecidi, caes-, cut. 

cano, cecini, cant-, sing. 

curro, cucurri, curs-, run. 

disco [Die], didici, (discit-), learn. 

-do, -didi, -dit- (as in ab-do, &c, 

with credo, vendo), put [dha], 
fallo, fefelli, fals-, deceive. 
pango [pag], pegi (pepigi), pact-, 

fasten, fx, bargain. 
parco, peperci, parcit-, spare. 



pingo [pig], pinxi, pict-, paint. 
plaudo, plausi, plaus-, applaud. 
plecto, plexi (xui), plex-, braid. 
premo, pressi, press-, press. 
promo, mpsi, mpt-, bring out. 
quatio, [-cussi], quass-, shake. 
rado, rasi, ras-, scrape. 
rego, rexi, rect-, rule. 
repo, repsi, rept-, creep. 
rodo, rosi, ros-, gnaw. 
sarpo, sarpsi, sarpt-, prune. 
scalpo, scalpsi, scalpt-, scrape. 
sciibo, scripsi, script-, write. 
serpo, serpsi, serpt-, crawl. 
spargo, sparsi, spars-, scatter. 
-spicio, -spexi, -spect-, view. 
-stinguo, -stinxi, -stinct-, quench. 
stringo, strinxi, strict-, bind. 
struo, struxi, struct-, build. 
sumo, sumpsi, sumpt-, take. 
surgo, surrexi, surrect-, rise. 
tego, texi, tect-, shelter. 
temno, tempsi, -tempt-, despise. 
tergo, tersi, ters-, wipe. 
tingo, tinxi, tinct-, stain. 
traho, traxi, tract-, drag. 
trudo, trusi, trus-, thrust. 
uro, ussi, ust-, burit. 
vado,-vasi,-vas-, go. 
veho, vexi, vect-, draw. 
vivo, vixi, vict-, live. 



pario, peperi, part- (pariturus), to 
bring forth. 

pello, pepuli, puis-, drive. 

pendo, pependi, pens-, weigh. 

posco, poposci, (posciturus,) de- 
mand. 

pungo [pug], pupugi, pomct-,//'/^. 

sisto [sta], stiti, stat-, stop. 

tango [tag], tetigi, tact-, touch. 

tendo (ten), tetendi (-tendi), tens- 
(tent-), stretch. [beat. 

tundo [tud], tutudi, tuns- (-tus-), 



c. Adding u (v) to the verb-root : ■ 



alo, alui, alt- (alit-), nourish. 
-cello, -cellui (-culi), -eels-, push. 
cerno, -crevi, -cret-, decree. 



colo, colui, cult-, dwell, till. 
compesco, compescui, restrain. 
consulo, lui, consult-, consult. 



Third Conjugation. 



85 



cresco, crevi, cret-, increase, [down. 
-cumbo [cub], cubui, cubit-, lie 
depso, depsui, depst-, knead. 
fremo, fremui, fremit-, roar. 
furo, furui, rage. 
gemo, gemui, gemit-, groan. 
gigno [gen], genui, genit-, beget. 
meto, messui, mess-, reap. 
molo, molui, molit-, grind. 
occulo, occului, occult-, hide. 
pasco, pavi, past-,/*?^. 
pono, [pos], posui, posit-, put. 
quiesco, quievi, quiet-, rest. 

d. Adding Iv to the verb-root :- 

arcesso, ivi, arcessit-, siMnmon. 
capesso, capessivi, undertake. 
cupio, cupivi, cuplt-, desire. 
incesso, incessivi, attack. 
lacesso, lacessivi, lacessft-, provoke. 



rapio, rapui, rapt-, seize. 
scisco, scivi, sclt-, decree. 
sero, sevi, sat-, sow. 
sero, serui, sert-, entwine. 
sino, sivi, sit-, permit. 
sperno, sprevi, spret-, scorn. 
sterno, stravi, strat-, strew. 
sterto, stertui (sterti), snore. 
strepo, strepui, strepit-, sound. 
-suesco, -suevi, -suet-, be wont. 
texo, texui, text-, weave. 
tremo, tremui, tremble. 
vomo, vomui, vomit-, vomit. 



peto, petivi, petit-, seek. 
quaero, quaesivi, quaesit-, seek. 
rudo, rudivi, rudit-, bray. 
sapio, sapivi (sapui), be wise. 
tero, trivi, trit-, rub. 



e. Lengthening the vowel of the root : — 



ago, egi, act-, drive. 

capio, cepi, capt-, take. 

edo, edi, esum, eat (see 140). 

emo, emi, empt-, buy. 

facio, feci, fact-, make. 

fodio, fodi, foss-, dig. 

frango [frag], fregi, fract-, break. 

fugio, fiigi, iugit-,jlee. 

fundo [fud], fudi, ius-,pour. 

jacio, jeci, jact-, throw, (-icio, -ject-) 



lavo, lavi, lot- (laut-), wash (reg. 

of 1st conj.). 
lego, legi (intel-lexi), lect-, gather. 
lino [li], levi (livi), lit-, smear. 
linquo [Lie], -liqui, -lict-, leave. 
nosco [gno], ndvi, not- (co-gnit-), 

know. 
rumpo [rup], rupi, rupt-, burst. 
scabo, scabi, scratch. 
vinco [vie], vici, vict-, conquer. 



f. Retaining the Present stem or verb root : — 

pinso, si, pins- (pinst-, pist-), bruise. 
prehendo, di, prehens-, seize. 



arguo, ui, utum, accuse. 

bibo, bibi, bibit-, drink. 

-cendo, -cendi, -cens-, kindle. 

cudo, -cudi, -cus-, forge. 

facesso, facessi, facessit-, execute. 

-fendo, -fendi, -fens-, ward off. 

findo [fid], fidi, 1 fiss-, split. 

ico, ici, ict-, hit. 

lambo, Iambi, lambit-, lap. 

luo, lui, luit-, wash. 

mando, mandi, mans-, chew. 

nuo, nui, nuit-, nod. 

pando, pandi, pans- (pass-), open, 



ruo, rui, rut- (ruit-), fall. 
scando, scandi, scans-, climb. 
scindo [scid], scidi, 1 sciss-, tear. 
sido, sidi (sedi), -sess-, settle. 
solvo, solvi, soliu>, /#/, loose. 
strido, stridi, whiz. 
vello, velli (vulsi), vuls-, pluck. 
verro, verri, vers-, sweep. 
verto, verti, vers-, turn. 
viso [vid], visi, vis-, visit. 
volvo, volvi, voliit-, turn. 



Note. — The following have no Perfect or Supine : — claudo, 
(limp), fatisco, fido, (fisus), fulgo, glisco, glubo, kz'sco, rabo, 
tollo (sustuli, sublaturri), vergo. 



1 In these the Perfect Stem is the same as the verb root, having lost the redu- 
plication. The reduplication is also lost in most compounds : as, ap-pello, ap-puli ; 
con-cido (cado), concidi. 



>33 



§34 



86 Etymology : The Regular Verb. 




Fourth Conjugation. 




Principal Parts : Act. audio audire audivi auditum 




Pass, audior audirl auditus sum 


INDIC. ACTIVE. SUBJ. 


INDIC. PASSIVE. SUBJ. 




Present. 




audio, / hear. 


audiam 


audior 


audiar 


audis, you hear* 


audias 


audiris (re) 


audiaris (re) 


audit, he hears. 


audiat 


auditur 


audiatur 


audlmus 


audiamus 


audimur 


audiamur 


auditis 


audiatis 


audimini 


audiamini 


audiunt 


audiant 


audiuntur 


audiantur 




Imperfect. 




audiebam 


audirem 


audiebar 


audirer 


audiebas 


audires 


audiebaris (re 


) audireris (re) 


audiebat 


audiret 


audiebatur 


audiretur 


audiebamus 


audiremus 


audiebamur 


audiremur 


audiebatis 


audiretis 


audiebamini 


audiremini 


audiebant 


audirent 

Fut 


audiebantur 
ure. 


audirentur 


audiam 




audiar 




audies 




audieris (re) 




audiet 




audietur 




audiemus 




audiemur 




audietis 




audiemini 




audient 


Per 


audientur 
feet. 




audivi 


audiverim 


auditus sum 


auditus sim 


audlvisti 


audiveris 


auditus es 


auditus sis 


audivit 


audiverit 


auditus est 


auditus sit 


audlvimus 


audlverimus 


audltl sumus 


audlti simus 


audlvistis 


audiveritis 


audit! estis 


audlti sitis 


audlverunt (re) 


audiverint 

Plup< 


audltl sunt 
Brfect. 


audlti sint 


audlveram 


audivissem 


aud!tus eram 


auditus essem 


audiveras 


audivisses 


auditus eras 


auditus esses 


audiverat 


audivisset 


auditus erat 


auditus esset 


audiveramus 


audlvissemus 


audlti eramus 


audlti essemus 


audiveratis 


audivissetis 


audlti eratis 


audlti essetis 


audiverant 


audivissent 


audlti erant 


audlti essent 




Future 


Perfect. 




au diver o 




auditus ero 




audiveris 




auditus eris 




audiverit 




auditus erit 




audlverimus 




audlti erimus 




audiveritis 




audlti eritis 




audiverint 




audlti erunt 





Fourth Conjugation ; Parallel Forms. 



87 





ACTIVE. 


IMPERATIVE. 


PASSIVE. 




Sing. 


Plur, 


Sing. 


Plur. 


PR. 


2. audi 


audite 


audire 


audimini 


F. 


2. audito 


audito te 


auditor 







3. audito 


audiunto 


auditor 


audiuntor 






INFINITIVE. 





Pr. audire Pf. audivisse Pr. audiri Pf. auditus esse 
F. auditurus esse F. auditum iri (auditus fore). 

participles. 
Pr. audiens Fut. auditurus | Pf. auditus Ger. audiendus 
Ger. audiendi, do, dum Supine, auditum, auditu 

133. There are — besides a few deponents and regular deriva- 
tives in urio — about 60 verbs of this conjugation, a large propor- 
tion of them being descriptive verbs : like — 



crocio, croak, 
cucurio, crow. 
ebullio, bubble. 
fritinnio, twitter. 



gannio, yelp. 
glutio, gulp. 
grunnio, grunt. 
hinnio, neigh. 



hirrio, snarl. 
mugio, bellow. 
muttio, mutter, 
singultio, hiccup. 



scaturio, gush. 
tinnio, tinkle. 
tussio, cough. 
vagio, cry. 



Those verbs not conjugated regularly, like audio, are the follow- 



amicio, amixi (cui), amict-, clothe. 
aperio, aperui, apert-, open. 
comperio, peri, compert-,^;^. 
farcio, farsi, farct-, (-turn), stuff. 
ferio, strike (no perfect or supine), 
fulcio, fulsi, fult-, prop. 
haurio, hausi, haust- (haus-), drain. 
operio, operui, opert-, cover. 
raucio, rausi, raus-, be hoarse. 
reperio, reperi, repert-,y£/^/. 



salio (-silio), salui (salii), salt-, leap. 
sancio (sac), sanxi, sanct-, sanction. 
sarcio, sarsi, sart-, patch. 
sarrio, Ivi (ui), Itum, hoe. 
sentio, sensi, sens-, feel. 
sepelio, sepelivi, sepult-, bury. 
sepio, sepsi, sept-, hedge in. 
singultio, Ivi, singultum, sob. 
venio, veni, vent-, come. 
vincio, vinxi, vinct-, bind. 



Note. — The following have no supine stem (perfect regular) : — 



caecutio, to be purblind, 
dementio, to be mad 
ferocio, to be fierce. 



gestio, to be overjoyed. 
glocio, to cluck (as a hen), 
ineptio, to play the trifler. 



Parallel Forms. 

134. Many verbs have more than one set of forms, 
of which only one is generally found in classic use : as, 

lavo, lavare, or lavere, to wash. 
scateo, scatere, or scatere, to gush forth, 
ludifico, 5re, or ludificor, ari, to mock. 



§34 



30.4 



88 



Etymology: Deponeiit Verbs. 



DEPONENT VERBS. 

135. Deponent Verbs have the form of the Passive 
Voice, with an active or reflexive signification : as, 

1. miror, mirari, miratus, admire. 

2. vereor, vereri, veritus, fear. 

3. sequor, sequi, secutus, follow. 

4. potior, potiri, potitus, possess. 

Indicative. 

sequor 
sequeris (re) 
sequitur 
sequimur 



Pres. miror 

miraris (re) 
miratur 



vereor 
vereris (re) 
veretur 



miramur 
miramini 
mirantur 
iMP'T.mirabar 
Fut. mirabor 
Perf. miratus sum 
Plup. miratus eram 
F. P. miratus ero 



veremur 
veremini 
verentur 
verebar 
verebor 
veritus sum 
veritus eram 
veritus ero 



sequimini 
sequuntur 
sequebar 
sequar 
secutus sum 
secutus eram 
secutus ero 



potior 

potiris (re) 

potitur 

potimur 

potimini 

potiuntur 

potiebar 

potiar 

potitus sum 

potitus eram 

potitus ero 



Pres. mlrer 
Imp't. mirarer 
Perf. miratus sim 



Subjunctive. 

verear sequar potiar 

vererer sequerer potirer 

veritus sim secutus sim potitus sim 
Plup. miratus essem veritus essem secutus essem potitus essem 
Imp. mirare, ator verere, etor sequere, itor potire, itor 
Infin. mirari vereri sequi potiri 

Fut. miraturus esse veriturus esse secuturus esse potiturus esse 

Pf miratus esse veritus esse secutus esse potitus esse 
Part. 



Pres. mlrans 
Fut. miraturus 
Perf. miratus 
Ger. mlrandus 
Ger. mlrandum 
Sup. miratum, tu 



verens sequens potiens 

veriturus secuturus potiturus 

veritus secutus potitus 

verendus sequendus potiendus 

verendum sequendum potiendum 
veritum, tu secutum, tu potitum, tu 

a. Deponents have the participles of both voices : as, 

sequens, following ; secuturus, about to follow. 
secutus, having followed j sequendus, to-be-followed. 

b. The perfect participle of verbs otherwise deponent is often 
passive : as, mercatus, bought; adeptus, gained (or having gained). 

c. The future infinitive is always to be given in the active form : 
thus of sequor it is secuturus esse (not secutum iri). 



Etymology : Deponent Verbs. 



8 9 



d. The gerundive, being passive in meaning, is found only in 
transitive verbs, or neuter verbs used impersonally : as, 

hoc confitendum est, this must be acknowledged. 
moriendum est omnibus, all must die. 

e. Most deponents are neuter or reflexive in their meaning, 
corresponding to what in Greek is called the Middle Voice. 

f. Some deponents are occasionally used in a passive significa- 
tion : as, criminor, / accuse or / am accused. 

g. About twenty verbs are, with an active meaning, found in both 
active and passive forms : as, mereo or mereor, / deserve. 

h. More than half of all deponents are of the First Conjugation, 
and all of these are regular. The following list contains all the 
irregular deponents : — 



adsentior, iri, adsensus, assent. 
apiscor, (-ip-),i, aptus (-eptus), get. 
expergiscor, i, -perrectus, rouse. 
experior, Iri, expertus, try. [confess. 
fateor (-fiteor), eri, fassus (-fessus), 
fruor, i, fructus (fruitus), enjoy. 
fungor, i, functus, fulfil. 
gradior (-gredior), i, gressus, step. 
irascor, i, Iratus, be angry. 
labor, i, lapsus,^//, 
loquor, i, locutus (loquutus), speak. 
-miniscor, i, -mentus, think. 
metior, iri, mensus, measure, [die. 
morior, i (iri), mortuus,(moriturus), 
nanciscor, i, nactus [nanctus) , fnd. 
nascor, i, natus, be born. 



mtor, i, nlsus (nixus), strive. 
obliviscor, i, oblltus, forget. 
opperior, Iri, oppertus, await. 
ordior, Iri, orsus, begin. [rise. 

orior (3d), Iri, ortus, (oriturus), 
paciscor, i, pactus, bargain, [stiffer. 
patior (-petior), i, passus (-pessus), 
-plector, i, -plexus, clasp. 
proficiscor, i, profectus, set-out. 
queror, i, questus, complain. 
reor, red, ratus, think. 
revertor, i, reversus, return, [low. 
sequor, i, secutus (sequutus), fol- 
tueor, eri, tuitus (tutus), defend. 
ulciscor, i, ultus, avenge. 
utor, i, usus, use, employ. 



Note. — The passive form comfterior, iri, compertus, is rarely 
found for comperio. The perfect, &c, of revertor, until the time of 
Augustus, had regularly the active form, reverti, reverteram, &c. 

u The following deponents have no supine stem : — 



devertor, ti, turn aside (to lodge), 
diffiteor, eri, deny. 
liquor, i, melt (neut.). 



medeor, eri, heal. 
reminiscor, i, call to mind 
vescor, i, feed upon. 



Semi-Deponents. 

136. A few verbs having no perfect stem form the 
tenses of completed action like the passive : these are 
called semi-deponents or neuter passives, viz., 

audeo, audere, ausus, dare, gaudeo, gaudere, gavisus, rejoice. 
fido, f idere, fisus, trust. soleo, solere, solitus, be wont. 



go 



Etymology : Irregular Verbs. 





PRESENT. 






INDIC SUBJ. 


INDIC 


SUBJ. 


INDIC 


SUBJ. 


volo velim 
vis(forr/^) veils 
vult {volt) velit 


nolo 

nonvis 

nonvult 


nolim 

nolis 

nolit 


malo 

mavis 

ma-vult 


malim 

malis 

malit 


volumus velimus 
vultis {volt is) velitis 
volunt vellnt 


nolumus 

nonvultis 

nolunt 


nolimus 
no litis 
nolint 


malumus 
mavultis 

ro.alu.nt 


malmras 

malitis 

malint 



IMPERFECT, 
volebam vellem nolebam nollem malebam mallem 

FUTURE, 
volam, voles, etc. nolam, noles, etc. malam, males, etc. 

PERFECT, 
volui voluerim nolui noluerim malui maluerim 

PLUPERFECT, 
volueram voluissem nolueram noluissem malueram maluissem 

FUTURE PERFECT, 
voluero noluero maluero 



a. From audeo there is an old subjunctive perfect ausim. 
The form sodes (for si audes), an thou wilt, is frequent in the 
dramatists and rare elsewhere. 

b. The active forms vapulare, to be flogged, and venire, to be 
sold (venum ire,^ to sale), having a passive meaning, are some- 
times called neutral passives. To these may be added fieri (see 
142), to be made, and exsulare, to be banished (live in exile). 

Note. — The following verbs are sometimes found as semi- ; 
deponents : juro, juratusj nubo, nuptaj placeo, placitus. 
[For the regular Derivative Forms, see page 114.] 

Irregular Verbs. 

[For esse and its compounds, see pp. 67-70.] 

137. Several verbs add some of the personal endings 
of the present tense directly to the root, or combine two 
roots in their inflection. These are called Irregular 
Verbs. They are, besides esse, the following. 

138. Volo and its compounds : viz., 

1. volo, velle, volui, 1 to wish. 

2. nolo (ndn volo) ? nolle, nolui, to be unwilling. 

3. malo (magis or mage volo), malle, malui, to wish rather. 
These three are inflected as follows : — 



1 The supine stem appears in vultus. 



Irregular Verbs : Fero, Edo. 



9 l 



IMPERATIVE. 



noli, nolite, do not. 

nolltO, nolltote, thou shalt not, ye shall not. 

nolltO, noluntO, he shall not, they shall not. 



Pres. velle voluisse 



Pres. VOlenS, willing* 
Ger. VOlendl (late). 



INFINITIVE. 

nolle noluisse 

PARTiaPLES. 

nolens, unwilling. 



malle maluisse 



139. Fero, ferre, tuli, latum, 1 to bear* 



Pres. 



Imperf. 
Fut. 
Per/. 
Plup. 
F.Perf. 
Imp. Pres. fer 
Fut. ferto 



ACTIVE 

INDIC 

fero 

fers 

fert 

ferimus 

fertis 

ferunt 

ferebam 

feram 

tiili 

tuleram 

tulero 

ferte 
fertote 



SUB J. 

ferarn 

feras 

ferat 

feramus 

feratis 

ferant 

ferrem 

tulerim 
tulissem 



PASSIVE. 

INDIC SUBJ. 

feror ferar 

ferris feraris (re) 

fertur feratur 

ferimur feramur 

ferimini feramini 

feruntur ferantur 

ferebar ferrer 

ferar 

latus sum latus sim 

latus eram latus essem 

latus ero 

ferre ferimini 

fertor 

fertor feruntor 

Pres. ferri Perf. latus esse 

Fut. latum iri (latus fore) 

Perf. latus Ger. ferendus 



ferto ferunto 
Inf. Pres. ferre Perf. tulisse 
Fut. laturus esse 

Part. Pres. fer ens Fut. laturus 

Ger. ferendl, do, dum Sup. latum, tu 
140. Edo, edere, edi, esum, to eat (regular of third conjuga- 
tion), has also some forms directly from the root (ed) without a 
characteristic vowel : viz., 

INDIC ACTIVE. SUBJ. 



edo edam (edim) 

edis (es) edas (edis) 
edit (est) edat (edit) 
edimus edamus (edimus) 

editis (estis) edatis (editis) 
edunt edant (edint) 



1 The perfect tuli is for tetuli (which sometimes occurs), from tul in tollo ; 
the supine latum for ilatum (cf. tAtjtos). 



INDIC PASSIVE. SUBJ. 
lit 


edor 

ederis (re) 
editur (estur) 


edar 

edaris (re) 
edatur 


edimur 
edimini 
eduntur 


edamur 
edamini 
edantur 



§37 



9 2 



Etymology: Irregular Verbs. 



Imperfect. 



edebar ederer 

edebaris (re) edereris (re) 
edebatur ederetur (essetur) 
edar, ederis, edetur, etc. 
esus sum esus sim 
esus eram esus essem 



edebam ederem (essem) 

edebas ederes (esses) 

edebat ederet (esset) etc. 

Fut. edam, edes, edet, etc. 
Perf. edi ederim 

Plup. ederam edissem 
F. Perf. edero esus ero 

Imp. ede (es) edite (este) edere edimini 

edito (esto) editote (estote) editor 
edito (esto) edunto editor eduntor 

Part. Pres. edens Fut. esurus Perf. esus Ger. edendus 
Ger. edendi, o, urn Sup. esum, su 

141. Eo, ire, ivi, ltum, to go. 1 The forms of eo are used 
impersonally in the passive ; the infinitive Iri with the supine in 
urn making the future infinitive. They are also found in veneo, 
to be sold (i.e. venum eo, go to sale). 

The compounds adeo, ineo, and some others, are transitive, and 
are regularly used also in the passive. 



SUBJUNCTIVE. 

earn, eas, eat 
eamus, eatis, eant 
Irem, ires, iret 
iremus, iretis, irent 



Iverim (ierim) 
ivissem (issem) 



INDICATIVE. 

Pres. S. eo, is, it 

P. imus, itis, eunt 

Imfterf. ibam, ibas, ibat 

ibamus, ibatis, ibant 

Ftiture ibo, ibis, ibit 

ibimus, ibitis, ibunt 

Perf. ivi (ii) 

Pluperf iveram (ieram) 

Fut. Perf ivero (iero) 

Imperat. i, ito, ito ; ite, itote, eunto 

Infin. Pres. ire Perf. ivisse (isse) Fut iturus esse 

Part. Pres. iens, euntis Fut. iturus Ger. eundum (-eundus) 

142. Facio, facere, feci, factum, to make, is regular, with these 
peculiar forms : future perfect faxo, perfect subjunctive faxim, im- 
perative fac. It has for its passive 

f io, fieri, factus sum, to be made, or become, 

of which the tenses of the first stem are regular of the fourth con- 
jugation, but with the subjunctive imperfect fierem. 



1 Root i, cf. e!/uu ; the e stands for ei produced by vowel-increase from i. 



1 


Irregular and 


Def 


ective Verbs, 




INDICATIVE. 




SUBJUNCTIVE. 


Pres. S. 


f 10, f IS, fit 




f lam, fias, fiat 


P. 


f linus, f itis, f lunt 




f lamus, f latis, f lant 


l7Hp, 


f lebam, f lebas, etc. 




fierem, fieres, etc. 


Fut. 


flam, fies, etc. 






Perf. 


factus sum 




factus sim 


Plup. 


factus eram 




factus essem 


Fut. Perf. 


factus ero 






Imperat. 


f 1, f ito, f ito ; f ite, f Itote, f lunto 


Infin. 


Pres. fieri 




Perf. factus esse 


Part. 


Perf. factus 




Ger. faciendus 



93 



a. Most compounds of facio with prepositions change a to i 
(present stem), or e (supine stem), and are inflected regularly : as, 

conficio, conficere, confeci, confectum, to finish. 

b. Other compounds retain a, and have -f lo in the passive : as, 
bene-facio (-fa'cis), -feci, -factum; pass, benefio, to 



c. A few isolated forms of -f io occur in other compounds : viz., 

COnfit, it happens, defit, it lacks. 
confiet defiunt 

eonfiat defiet 

confieret defiat 

confierl defieri 



infit, he begins (to speak). 

infiunt 

effierl, to be effected. 

interfierl, to perish. 

interflat, let him perish. 



Defective Verbs. 

143. Some verbs have lost their Present stem, and 
use only tenses of the Perfect, in which they are in- 
flected regularly. They are — 

a. Coepi, 1 / began; Infin. coepisse; Fut. Part, coepturus. 
A passive participle coeptus is used with the passive infinitive. 
For the Present, incipio is used. 

b. Odi, / hate ; 2 with the participles osus, hating or hated 
(perosus, utterly hateful} , osurus, likely to hate. 

c. Memini, / remember; 3 with the Imperative memento, me- 
mentote ; Part, meminens. 

Note. — Odi and memini, having a Perfect form with a present meaning, 
are called preteritive verbs, Novi and consuevi have present meaning. 



1 Root co-AP as in apiscor. 
3 Root men, as in mens. 



2 Root od in odium. 



94 Etymology: Defective Verbs. 

144. Many verbs have only the Present stem, and in 
many the simple verb is incomplete, but the parts appear 
in the compounds. Some occur very commonly, but 
only in a few forms: as, 

a. Aio, 1 I say ; 

Indic Pres. aio, ais, ait ; aiunt 

Imp erf. aiebam, (aibam), aiebas, &c. 
Subj. Pres. aias, aiat, aiant 
Imperat. ai. — Part, aiens 

b. Inquam, say (used only, except in poetry, in direct quota- 
tions, as the English quoth, which is perhaps from the same root) : 

Ind. Pres. inquam, inquis, inquit 

inquimus, inquitis (late), inquiunt 

Imperf. inquiebat. — Put. inquies, et. — Pf. inquisti, inquit. 
Imperat. inque, inquito. 

c. Fari, to speak, forms the periphrastic tenses regularly : as, 
fatus sum, eram, &c. It has also — 

Ind. Pres. fatur, fantur. — Put. fabor, fabitur. 
Imperat. fare. — Infin. fari. — Part, fanti (with the com- 
pound infans, usually as a noun), fatus. — Ger. fandi, -do. 
Gerund, fandus, to be spoken of (with the compounds infan- 
dus, nefandus, tmspeakable, abominable'). — Supine, fatu. 
Several compounds with the prepositions ex, prae, pro, inter, 
occur : as, praefatur, affari, prof at us, interfatur, &c. 

d. Quaeso, / ask, beg (an original form of quaero), has — 

quaeso, quaesiimus, quaesere, quaesens. 

e. Ovare, to triumph, has the following : 

ovat, ovet, ovaret ; ovans, ovandi, ovatus, ovaturus. 

f A few are found chiefly in the Imperative : as, 

salve, salvete, hail! also salvere (from salvus). 
ave (or have), avete, aveto, hail ox farewell. 
cedo, cedite (cette), give, tell. 
apage ! begone ! (properly a Greek word) . 



1 Root agh found in adagium and in nego, which has passed into the first 
conjugation. 



Defective and Impersonal Verbs. 



95 



i g. Queo, f can, nequeo, f cannot, are conjugated like eo. They 
■ are rarely used except in the Present. 



Pres. 



Imperf. 

XFut. 
Perf. 



Plup. 

Infin. 

Part. 



INDIC 

queo 

quis 

quit 

quimus 

qultis 

queunt 

quibam 

quibat 

quibant 

quibo 

quibunt 

qui vi 

quivit 
quiverunt 



SUBJ. INDIC 

queam nequeo 

(regular) nonquis 

nequit 
nequimus 
nequitis 
nequeunt 
quirem nequibam 

quiret nequibat 

quirent nequibant 



SUBJ. 

nequeam 

(regular) 



nequirem 



quiverit 



ne quibunt 

nequivi 

nequivisti 

nequivit 

nequiverunt 



quissent 

quire quivisse (quisse) ne quire 
quiens, queuntis nequiens 

[A few passive forms occur in old writers.] 



nequisset 
nequivisse 



Impersonal Verbs. 

145. Many verbs, from their meaning, appear only in 
the third person singular, with the infinitive and gerund. 
These are called Impersonal Verbs. 1 Their synopsis 
may be given as follows : — 



L it is plain. 


ii. it is alloived. 


iii. it chances 


. iv. it results. 


Pass. i. it isfotight. 


constat 


licet 


accidit 


evenit 


pugnatur 


constabat 


licebat 


accidebat 


eveniebat 


pugnabatur 


constabit 


licebit 


accidet 


eveniet 


pugnabitur 


constitit 


licuit 


accidit 


evenit 


pugnatum est 


constiterat 


licuerat 


acciderat 


evenerat 


pugnatum erat 


constiterit 


licuerit 


accident 


evenerit 


pugnatum erit 


constet 


liceat 


accidat 


eveniat 


pugnetur 


constaret 


liceret 


accideret 


eveniret 


pugnaretur 


constiterit 


licuerit 


acciderit 


evenerit 


pugnatum sit 


constitisset 


licuisset 


accidisset 


evenisset 


pugnatum esset 


constare 


licere 


accidere 


e venire 


pugnari 


constitisse 


licuisse 


accidisse 


evenisse 


pugnatum esse 


-staturum esse liciturum esse 


eventurum esse pugnatum in 



1 With impersonal verbs the word it is used in English, having usually no rep- 
resentative in Latin, though id, hoc, Mud, are often used nearly in the same way. 



g6 Impersonal Verbs ; Periphrastic Forms, 

146. Impersonal Verbs may be classified as follows : — 

a. Verbs expressing the operations of nature: as, pluit, it 
rai?is; ningit, it snows; grandinat, it hails; fulgurat, it lightens ; 
vesperascit (incept.), it grows late. 

In these, no subject is distinctly thought of; though sometimes 
the name of a deity is expressed ; and, in poetic use, of other 
agents also : as, fundae saza pluunt, the slings rain stones. 

b. Verbs of feeling, where the person who is the proper subject 
becomes the object, as if himself affected by the feeling expressed 
in the verb. Such are, — miseret, it grieves; paenitet (poenitet), 
it repents; piget, it disgusts ; pudet, it shames ; taedet, it wearies : 
as, miseret me, / pity (it distresses me) . 

Such verbs often have also a passive form : as, misereor, I pity 
(am moved by pity) ; and occasionally other parts : as, libens, 
licens, paeniturus, paenitendus, pudendus, pertaesum est. 

c. By a similar construction, the passive of intransitive verbs 
is very often used impersonally : as, pugnatur, there is fighting ; 
ltur, some one goes; parcitur mini, I am spared? 

d. Verbs which have a phrase or clause as their subject : as, 
accidit (contingit, evenit, obtingit, obvenit, fit), it happens ; 
libet, it pleases ; licet, it is per?nitted ; certum est, it is resolved; 
constat, it is clear; placet, videtur, it seems good; decet, it 
is becoming; delectat, juvat, it delights; oportet, necesse est, 
it is needful; praestat, it is better; interest, refert, it concerns ; 
vacat, there is leisure; restat, superest, it remains. 

Note. — Many of these verbs may be used personally. Libet 
and licet have also the passive forms libitum (licitum) est, &c. 

Periphrastic Forms. 

147. The following periphrastic forms are found in 
the inflection of the verb: — 

a. The so-called "Periphrastic Conjugations" (seep. 77). 

b. The tenses of completed action in the Passive formed by 
the tenses of esse with the Perfect Participle. 

c. The Future Infinitive Passive, formed — 1. by the infinitive 
passive of eo, to go, used impersonally with the Supine in um; 
2. by fore (or futurum esse), with the Perfect participle ; 3. by 
fore with ut and the subjunctive. 



1 This use of the passive proceeds from its original reflexive meaning, the ac- 
tion being regarded as accomplishing itself (compare the French cela se fait). 






Particles: Adverbs. 



97 



Chapter VII. — Particles. 

Note. — What are called Particles — that is, all Adverbs, 
Prepositions, and Conjunctions — are real or extinct case-forms, 
or else compounds and phrases. In classification, Particles cannot 
always be distinguished ; many prepositions and conjunctions being 
also reckoned among adverbs. 

I. -ADVERBS. 
Derivation. 

148. The regular adverbs of manner are formed from 
Adjectives, 1 as follows : — 

a. Adjectives of the first and second declensions change the 
characteristic vowel of the stem into e (originally an ablative in d) : 
as, from carus, dear, care, dearly. 2 

b. Adjectives of the third declension add -ter 3 to the stem. All 
are treated as i-stems, except those in nt (properly participles), 
which lose the t : as, fortiter, bravely j acriter, eagerly ; vigi- 
lanter, watchfully j prudenter, prudently ; frequenter, numer- 
ously. 

c. Some adverbs of the former class have both forms : as, from 
durus, dure, duriter ; from miser, misere, miseriter.^ 

d. The neuter accusative of adjectives and pronouns is often 
used as an adverb (strictly a cognate accusative, see Syntax) : as, 
multum, much j facile, easily ; acrius, more keenly. 

e. The ablative neuter or (less commonly) feminine is used 
adverbially: as, fal&o, falsely j cito, quickly j recta (via), straight 
{straightway) ; qua (parte), where j crebro, frequently. 

Note. — In many Adverbs and other Particles the case-form is 
less obvious, and in some is doubtful. Examples may be seen in 
the following : — 

a. Accusative forms : actutum, non (ne ilnum), iterum (comparative 
of is). 



1 For the comparison of these adverbs, see 92 (p. 45). 

2 So abunde, saefie, firofie, from adjectives not in use. 

8 This suffix is of uncertain origin, probably the same as in the Greek -repoq, 
and in alter, uter ; and, if so, these are neuter accusatives. 
4 So aliter from alms, — old stem alt-. 

7 



98 Etymology : Particles. 

£. Ablative forms : contra, qui, aliqui. 

y. Datives of adjectives and pronouns : as, quo, adeo, ultro, citro, retro 
(the last three being comparatives of uls, as, re) ; Hide, illoce, weakened 
to illuc. 

5. Locative forms : ibi, ubi, peregre (peregri), hie, interim, deinde, tamen, 
and the compounds extrinsecus, hodie, perendie, olim (ollus), 

e. Feminine Accusatives : statim, saltim (generally in the form saltern), 
palayn, perperai?i, tarn, qtiam, 71am (which may be neuters). 

£ Plural Accusatives, neuter or feminine, frustrd,(?) alias, fords. 

77. Of uncertain formation : (1) those in -tus (usually preceded by /), 
as: penitus, funditus, divmitus, — which are ablative in meaning; (2) 
those in -dem, -dam, -do (in quan-do, do- nee), dum, jam (perhaps from the 
same root with dies, diu, &c). 

6. Phrases or Clauses which have grown into adverbs : anted (ace. 
pi. or abl.), post??iodo, denuo (de novo), prorsus, quota7i7iis, qua??iobrem, 
obviam, pridem, for san, for sita7i (fors sit a7i), scilicet (scire licet). 

[For Numeral Adverbs, see p. 49.] 
Classification. 

149. Adverbs, other than those regularly formed from 

adjectives, are classified as follows : — 

a. Adverbs of Place. 1 

hie, here hue, hither hinc, hence hac, by this way 

ibi, there eo, thither inde, thence ea, by that way 

istic ,, istuc „ istinc ,, ista „ 

illic ,, illuc ,, illinc ,, ilia (iliac) ,, 

ubi, where quo, whither unde, whence qua, by what way 

alicubi, s 0771 ew 'here aliquo, to, &c. alicunde,y"7W//, &c. aliqua, by, &c. 

ibidem, in the sa7iie place eodem ,, indidem ,, eadem ,, 

alibi, elsewhere ali5 ,, aliunde „ alia „ 

ubiubi, wherever quoquo ,, undecunque „ quaqua „ 

ubivis, anywhere quovis „ undique „ quavis ,, 

sicubi, if anywhere siquo ,, sicunde ,, siqua „ 

necubi, lest anywhere nequo ,, necunde „ nequa ,, 

usquam, anywhere; nusquam, 7icnuhere ; ultro, beyo7id (or freely, i.e. 

beyond what is required) ; citro, to this side ; intro, inwardly ; 

porro, further on. 
quorsum (quo vorsum, whither turned) ? to what end ? horsum, this way ; 

prorsum, forward (prorsus, utterly)-, introrsum, inwardly; retror- 

sum, backward ; sursum, upward ; deorsum, downward ; seorsum, 

apart ; aliorsum, another way. 



1 The demonstrative adverbs hie, ibi, istic, illic, and their correlatives, corre- 
spond in signification with the pronouns hie, is, iste, ille (see 102), and are often 
equivalent to these pronouns with a preposition : as, inde = ab eo, &c. So the rela- 
tive or interrogative ubi corresponds with qui (quis), ali-cubi with aliquis, ubiubi 
with q::isquis, si-atbi with siquis (see 104, 105, with the table of Correlatives 
in i^j\. All these adverbs are originally case-forms of pronouns. 



Adverbs. 99 

b. Adverbs of Time. 

quando ? when? (interrog.) ; cum (quom, quum), when (relat.) ; ut, as. 
nunc, now; tunc (turn), then; mox, presently ; jam, already ; dum, while. 
primum (primo), first ; deinde (postea), next after ; postremum (post- 

remo), finally ; posteaquam, postquam, when (after that). 
umquam (unquam), ever; numquam (nunquam), never ; semper, always. 
aliquando, at some time, at length ; quandoque (quandocumque), whenever. 
quotiens (quoties), how often; totiens, so often ; aliquotiens, a number 
quotidie, every day ; in dies, from day to day. [of times. 

nondum, not yet ; necdum, nor yet ; vixdum, scar ce yet ; quam primum, 

as soon as possible ; saepe, often; cr tbr o, f r equently ; jamnon, no longer. 

c. Adverbs of Degree or Cause. 

quam, how, as ; tarn,, so; quamvis, however much, although ; quomodo, 
cur, quare, why ; quod, quia, because ; eo, therefore. [how. 

ita, sic, so; ut (uti), as, how ; utut, utcumque, however. 
quamquam (quanquam), although, and yet ; et, etiam, quoque, even, also. 

d. Interrogative Particles. 

an, -ne, anne, utrum, utrumne, num, whether. 

nonne, annon, whether not ; numquid, ecquid, ivhether at all (ecquid 

intellegis ? have you any idea ?) 
utrum (num), -ne, whether ; ... an (annon, necne), or. 
— „ ... an, -ne „ 

e. Negative Particles. 

non, not (in simple denial) ; haud (hau, haut), minime, not (in contradic- 
tion) ; ne, not (in prohibition) ; neve, neu, nor ; nedum, much less. 

ne, lest ; neque, nee, nor ; ne . . . quidem, not even. 

non modo . . . verum (sed) etiam, not only . . . but also. 

non modo . . sed ne . . quidem, not only not . . but not even. 

si minus, if not ; quo minus (quominus), so as not. 

quin (relat.), but that; (interrog.), why not? 

ne, nee (in compos.), not ; nescio, / knozv not; nego, / say no (aio, I say 
yes) ; nemo (ne homo), no one; ne quis, lest any one ; necopinatus, 
unexpected ; neque enim, for . . . not. 

150. Two negatives are equivalent to an affirmative : as, 

nemo non audiet, every one will hear. 

a. This is especially frequent with compounds of non: as, non- 
nullus (=aliquis), some (at any rate); nonnihil (=aliquid), 
something; nonnemo (= aliquot), sundry persons; nonnum- 
quam (= aliquotiens), sometimes; necnon, also. 

b. On the other hand, nemo non, nullus non, every one; nihil 
non, every thing ; numquam non, always, &c. 

151. The following require special notice : — 

a. Etiam, also, is stronger than quoque, and usually precedes 

the emphatic word, while quoque follows it : as, 

terret etiam nos ac minatur (Rose. Am. 40), us also he terrifies and 

threatens. 
hoc quoque maleficium (id.), this crime too. 



IOO Etymology : Particles. 

b. Nunc means definitely the prese7it tiyne ; jam, already (or, 
with the future, presently) ; with negatives, no longer, with refer- 
ence to the past. Tunc, then, is a strengthened form of turn, 
which is correlative with cum, when: as, 

non est jam lenitati locus, there is no longer room for mercy. 

quod jam erat institutum, which had come to be a practice. 

nunc quidem deleta est, tunc florebat (Lael. 4), now ('tis true) she 

[Greece] is ruined, then she was in her glory, 
turn cum regnabat, at the time [when] he reigned. 

c. Certo means certainly ; certe (usually), at any rate ; as, 
certo scio, I know for a certainty ; ego certe, I at least. 

d. Txlmxixa., first {first in order, ox for the first time), is usually 
followed by deinde, turn, . . . denique. Thus — 

primum de genere belli, deinde de magnitudine, turn de impera- 
tore deligendo (Manil. 2), first of the kind of war, next of its 
magnitude, then of the choice of commander. 

The adjective forms of primus are used of persons and things 
with respect to other persons and things. Primum and primo 
(adverbs) rather modify the predicate : primum, as first of a 
series ; primo (more unconnected), giving prominence to the 
change of time. 

e. Quidem, indeed, emphasizes, and often has a concessive 
meaning, especially when followed by sed, autem, &c. : nunc 
quidem, now, ^tis true. With ne . . . quidem, not even or not 
. . . either, the emphatic word must stand between : as, 

senex ne quod speret quidem habet (C. M. 19), a?i old man has not 

any thing to hope for EVEN, 
sed ne Jugurtha quidem quietus erat (Jug. 51), but Jugurtha was not 

quiet either. 

2.-PREPOSITIONS. 

152. The Latin Prepositions are regularly used with 
some special case of a noun or pronoun, either the accu- 
sative or the ablative. 1 



1 Prepositions are not originally distinguished from Adverbs in form or mean- 
ing, but only specialized in use, as above. Most of them are true case-forms : as, 
contra, infra, supra (comparative abl.), circu?n, coram, cum (ace), circiter, prae- 
ter (compare 88 d). Of the remainder, versus is a participle of verto, rarely used 
without another preposition; adversus is a compound; while the origin of the 
brief forms ab, ad, de, ex, ob, traits, is obscure and doubtful. 



Prepositions. 



IOI 



a. The following are used with the Accusative : — 

ad, to. erga, towards. 

adversus, against, extra, outside. 
adversum, towards, infra, below. 



ante, before. 
apud, at, near. 
circa, or 
circum, around. 
circiter, about. 
cis, citra, this side. 
contra, against* 



post, after. 

praeter, beyond. 

prope, near. 

propter, on account of. 

secundum, next to. 

supra, above. 

trans, across. 
penes, in the power, ultra, on the further side. 
per, through. versus, towards. 

pone, behind. 



inter, amotig. 
intra, inside. 
juxta, near. 
ob, on account of. 



~~ b. The following are used with the Ablative : — 



a, ab, abs, away from, by. 
absque, without, but for. 
coram, in presence of. 
cum, with. 
de,from. 



e, ex, out of 

prae, in comparison with. 

pro, in front of for. 

sine, withoitt. 

tenus, up to, as far as. 



c. The following may be used with either case, but strictly with 
a difference in meaning : — 

in, into, in; sub, under j subter, beneath; super, above. 
In and sub, when followed by the Accusative, indicate motion to, 
when by the Ablative, rest in, a place. 

153. Some idiomatic uses of the prepositions may be 
seen in the following : — 

A, ab, away from l (opposite of ad) : — prope ab urbe, near (not far 
from) the city ; liberare ab, to set free from ; occisus ab hoste (periit ab 
hoste), slain by an enemy ; ab hac parte, on this side ; ab re ejus, to his 
advantage ; a republics,, for the interest of the state. 

Ad, TO, towards, at, near : — ad tempus, at the (fit) time ; adire ad 
rempublicam, to go into public life; ad petendam pacem, to seek peace ; 
ad nunc modum, in this -way ; quern ad modum, how, as; ad centum, 
near a hundred ; ad hoc, besides ; omnes ad unum, all to a man. 

Ante, IN front, before : — ante urbem captam, before the city was 
taken ; ante diem quintum (A.D.V.). Kal., the fifth day before the Calends 
(the 3d day before the last of the month) ; ante quadriemiium, four years 
before or ago ; ante tempus, too soon. 

Apud, AT, BY, among, rarely of places : — apud populum, before the 
people ; apud aliquem, at otters house ; apud se, at home, or in his senses ; 
apud Ciceronem, in Cicero (in his works). 



1 ab signifies direction from the object, but often towards the speaker ; com- 
pare de and ex. 



102 Etymology: Particles. 

Circum, circa, circiter (stem as in circus, circle), about, around : 
circum haec loca, hereabout ; circa se habent, they have with them. Of 
time or number, circa or circiter (not circum)-. — circa eandem horam, 
about the same hour ; circiter passus mille, about a mile. 

Contra (abl. comp. of cum), opposite, against : — contra Italiam, 
over against Italy ; haec contra, this in reply ; contra autem, but on the 
other hand (adv.) ; quod contra, whereas on the other hand (adv.). 

Cum, with (together in place or time) : — cum malo suo, to his awn 
hurt ; confligere cum hoste, to fight with the enetny ; esse cum telo, to go 
armed ; cum silentio, in silence. 

De, from, down from, concerning : — unus de plebe, one of the 
people ; qua de causa, for which reason ; de improviso, of a sudden ; de 
industria, on purpose ; de integro, anew ; de tertia vigilia, just at mid- 
night (starting at the third watch) ; de mense Decembri navigare, to 
sail as early as December. 

Ex, e, from (the midst, opposed to in), out of: — ex hoc die, from 
this day forth ; ex consulatu, right after his co7isulship ; ex ejus sententia, 
according to his opinion; ex aequo, justly; ex improviso, unexpectedly ; 
ex tua re, to your advantage ; magna ex parte, in a great degree ; ex equo 
pugnare, to fight on horseback ; ex usu, expedient. 

In with ace, into (opp. to ex) : — amor in (erga^r adversus) patrem, 
love for his father ; in aram confugit, he fled to the altar (on the steps or 
merely to) ; in dies, from day to day ; in longitudinem, in length ; in haec 
verba jurare, to swear to these words ; hunc in modum, in this way ; oratio 
in Catilinam, a speech against Catiline ; in perpetuum,/^ ever ; in pejus, 
for the worse ; in diem vivere, to live from hand to mouth. With abl., 
in, ON, AMONG : — in urbe esse, to be in town ; in tempore, in season ; in 
scribendo, while writing; est mihi in animo, / have it in mind; in 
ancoris, at anchor ; in hoc homine, in the case of this man. 

Infra, below : — infra caelum, under the sky ; infra Homerum, later 
than Homer ; infra iii. pedes, less than three feet. 

Inter, between (with 2 ace), among: — inter bibendum, while 
drinking; inter se loquuntur, they talk together ; inter nos, betwee7i our- 
selves. 

Ob, towards (in place), on account of: — ob oculos, before the 
eyes ; ob earn causam,/<?r that reason ; quam ob rem, wherefore. 

Per, through (in any direction) : — per urbem ire, to go through the 
city ; licet per me, you may for all me ; per jocum, in jest. 

Prae, in front, by reason of : — prae se ferre, to carry before him 
[exhibit or make known)-, prae gaudio conticuit, he was silent for joy ; 
prae magnitudine corporum suorum, in comparison with their own bigness, 

Praeter, by (on the outside), besides : — praeter spem, beyond hope ; 
praeter oculos, before the eyes. 

Pro, in front of, in behalf of, instead of (facing the same 
way) : — pro populo, in presence of the people ; pro lege, in defence of the 



Prepositions ; Conjunctions. 103 

law ; pro hac vice, for this once ; pro consule, in place of consul ; pro 
viribus, considering his strength ; pro virili parte, to the best of one's ability. 

Propter, near, by : — propter te sedet, he sits next you ; propter 
metum, through fear. 

Secundum, just beyond, following (part, of sequor) : — ite se- 
cundum me (Plaut.), go behind me ; secundum litus, near the shore ; 
secundum flumen, along the stream (secundo fluorine, down stream); 
secundum naturam, according to nature. 

Sub, under: — sub montem succedere, to come close to the hill ; sub 
noctem, towards night; sub lucem, near daylight ; sub haec dicta, at 
these words ; sub Jove, in the open air ; sub monte, at the foot of a hill ; 
sub eodem tempore, about that time. 

Super, above, over: — vulnus super vulnus, wound upon wound ; 
super Indos, beyond the Hindoos ; super tali re, about such an affair ; 
satis superque, enough and more. 

Supra (comparative), on the top: — supra hanc memoriam, before 
oitr re7nembrance ; supra morem more than usual ; supra quod, besides. 

Ultra, beyond (on the further side) : — ultra eum numerum, more 
than that mt7nber ; ultra fidem, incredible; ultra modum, immoderate ; 
non plus ultra, nothing further. 

[For Prepositions in Compounds, see 170.] 



^-CONJUNCTIONS. 
Classification. 

154. Conjunctions like adverbs are petrified cases of 
nouns or pronouns. They are more numerous, and their 
use is much more accurately distinguished, in Latin than 
in English. They are divided into two classes, viz. : — 

a. Co-ordinate: — these include Copulative (and), Disjunc- 
tive (or), Adversative (but), Causal (for), Illative (there- 
fore) . 

b. Subordinate: — these are Conditional (if), — including 
Comparative (as if), Concessive (though, even if), — Tem- 
poral (when), Consecutive (so that), Final (in order that). 

155. The following list x includes most of the conjunc- 
tions and conjunctive phrases in common use : — 



1 Some of these have been included in the classification of Adverbs, and a list 
of Interjections has been added. See also list of Correlatives., page 57. 



104 Etymology : Particles. 

Co-ordinate. 

A. COPULATIVE AND DISJUNCTIVE. 

et, -que, atque (ac), and. 

et . . . et; et . . . -que (atque); -que . . . et ; -que . . . -que (poet.), 

both . . . and. 
etiam, quoque, neque non (necnon), quinetiam, itidem (item), also. 
cum . . . turn; turn . . . turn, both . . . and ; not only . . . but alsc. 
qua . . . qua, on one hand, on the other hand, 
modo . . . modo, now . . . now. 
aut . . . aut ; vel . . . vel (-ve), either . . . or. 
sive (seu) . . . sive, whether . . . or. 

nee (neque) . . . nee (neque) ; neque . . . nee ; nee . . . neque (rare), 

neither . . . nor. 

et . . . neque, both . . . and not. 

nee . . . et ; nee (neque) . . . -que, neither . . . and. 

B. ADVERSATIVE. 

sed, autem, verum, vero, at, atqui but. 

tamen, attamen, sed tamen, verumtamen, but yet, nevertheless. 

nihilominus, none the less. 

at vero, enimvero, but (for) in truth. 

ceterum, on the other hand, but. 

C. CAUSAL AND ILLATIVE. 1 

nam, namque, enim, etenim, for. 

quia, quod, because. 

quoniam, quippe, cum (quom), quando, quandoquidem, siquidem, 

utpote, since, inasmuch as. 
propterea ( . . . quod),/br this reason ( . . . that). 
quapropter, quare, quamobrem, quocirca, unde, wherefore, whence. 
ergo, igitur, itaque, ideo, idcirco, proinde, therefore, accordingly. 

Subordinate. 2 

D. CONDITIONAL. 

si, if ; sin, but if; nisi (ni), unless, if not ; quod si, but if. 
modo, dum, dummodo, si modo, if only, provided. 
dummodo ne (dum ne, modo ne), provided only not. 

E. COMPARATIVE. 

ut, uti, sicut, velut, prout, praeut, ceu, as, like as. 
tamquam (tanquam), quasi, utsi, ac si, as if. 
quam, atque (ac), as, than. 



1 Several of these are often used also to introduce subordinate clauses. 

2 See Syntax, Chap. V., for the use of these particles in subordinate clauses. 



ij Conjunctions. 105 

F. CONCESSIVE. 1 

etsi, etiamsi, tametsi, tamenetsi, quamquam (quanquam), although. 

quamvis, quantumvis, quamlibet, however much. 

licet (properly a verb), ut, cum (quom, quum), though, suppose, whereas. 

G. TEMPORAL. 

cum (quom), cum primum, ubi, ut, ut primum, postquam, when. 
prius . . quam, ante . . quam, before; non ante . . quam, not . . until. 
quando, simul atque (simul ac), simul, as soon as. 
dum, usque dum, donee, quoad, until. 

H. CONSECUTIVE AND FINAL. 

ut (uti), quo, ut, so that, in order that. 

ne, ut ne, lest (in order that not) ; neve (neu), nor. 

quin (after negatives), quominus, but that (so as to prevent). 

Interjections. 

O, en, ecce, ehem, papae, vah (of astonishment). 

io, evae, evoe (of joy). 

heu, eheu, vae, alas I (of sorrow). 

heus, eho, ehodum, ho! (of calling). 

eia, euge (of praise). 

proh (of attestation) : as, proh pudor, shame! 

156. The following are the conjunctions whose mean- 
ing or use chiefly requires to be noticed : — 

a. Et, and, connects independent words or clauses ; -que (en- 
clitic) combines closely into one connected whole; atque (some- 
times ac before consonants) adds with emphasis. In the second 
member, and not is expressed by neque or nee. 

Atque (ac), as, than, is also used after words of comparison 
and likeness : as, idem, the same ; simul, as soon ; aliter, otherwise. 

b. Sed and verum or vero (more forcible), but, are used to 
contradict what precedes, — always after negatives ; at, yet, intro- 
duces with emphasis a new point, especially in argument (at enim 
almost always) alluding to a supposed statement on the other side ; 
autem {however) is used in the same way, especially in transitions, 
but with less force. Atqui sometimes introduces an objection, 
sometimes a fresh step in the reasoning. Quod si, but if, is used 
to continue a statement. Ast is old or poetic. 



1 A concessive is often followed by an adversative : as tamenetsi . . tamen 
nihilominus, though . . . yet none the less. 



io6 Etymology: Particles. 

c. Aut, or, excludes the alternative ; vel (-ve) gives a choice ; 
sive (seu) is properly used in disjunctive conditions, but is also 
used with single words, — especially two names for the same thing. 
But ol aut and vel the use is not always clearly distinguished. 
Vel {even) is used tc express a climax ; vel minimus, the very 
least. 

d. Nam (namque), for, introduces a sufficient reason ; enim, 
an explanatory circumstance ; etenim {for, you see; for, you 
know), something self-evident, or needing no proof (negatively, 
nee or neque enim). 

e. Ergo, therefore, is used of things proved logically ; itaque, 
in proofs from the nature of things ; igitur, then (a weak ergo), 
in passing from one stage of the argument to another, often merely 
to resume ; idcirco, for this reason, to call attention to a special 
point, followed regularly by a clause with quod, quia, si, or ut. 

f Quia, because, regularly introduces a fact ; quod, either a 
fact or a statement or allegation ; quoniam (quom jam), since, 
has reference to motives. 

g. Quom (cum), when, is always a relative conjunction, often 
a correlative with turn ; quando is also used as interrogative or 
indefinite (quando? when f si quando, if ever). 

h. Conjunctions, especially those of relative origin, frequently 
have a correlative in the preceding clause, to which they correspond. 
So too the same conjunction is often repeated in two coordinate 
clauses. Examples are the following : — 

Et . . . et means simply both . . . and ; cum (less fre- 
quently turn) . . . turn emphasizes the second member, with 
the meaning not only . . . but also ; while . . . so too. Other forms 
are modo . . . modo, nunc . . . nunc, jam . . . jam, simul ... 
si??iul, qua . . . qua. 

i. The concessives (etsi, quamvis, etc.) may introduce either a 
fact or a supposition ; and are regularly followed by the correlative 
tamen, yet, nevertheless. Of these ut often has the meaning 
suppose, even if; cum, whereas, while on the other hand. Quan- 
quam (rarely etsi or tametsi), and yet, but, however, may intro- 
duce an independent statement to limit and correct the preceding, 
often by a sudden transition: as, quanquam quid loquor? but 
what am I saying ? 

k. Autem, enim, vero, always follow one or more words in their 
clause ; the same is generally true of igitur, and often of tamen. 
[For the Syntax of these Particles, see 208]. 



Formation of Words. 



107 



Chapter V III. — Formation of Words. 

1. — Roots and Stems. 1 

157. The Root is the simplest (most primitive) form 
in which the general meaning of a word can be traced. 
Stems are formed from roots, and are divided into 
two main groups: viz., Noun-stems (including adjec- 
tives) and Verb-stems. 2 

Note. — Some roots show no trace of any meaning except one 
of position or direction, and are called Pronominal Roots. 

158. Roots may be used as Stems : — 

a. Without change : as, due-is, dux; nee-is, nex. 

b. With vowel-increase : as, luc-is, lux; pdc-is, pax. 

c. With reduplication : as, fur-fur, mar-mor, mur-mur. 

d* Compounded : as, ju-dic-is, judex (Jus, died) ; con-jug-is, con- 
jux (con-jungd). 

159. Stems are more commonly formed by means of 
Suffixes consisting of Pronominal Roots : 3 

a. Primary : added to the Root. 4 

b. Secondary: added to a Stem, either with or without the 

above changes. 

2.— Primary Suffixes. 

160. Primary Suffixes (/. e. those added directly to the 
Root) were, in their original form, the following : — 

a. The Vowels a, i, u. 

b. The Syllables ta, ti, tu ; na, ni, nu 

ma, va, ra, ya, ka 

an, as, ant ; man, tar, tra 



1 See 21, 22, p. 9. 

2 Both Roots and Stems were at the earlier stages of the Indo-European lan- 
guage significant, and capable of being used without inflection. Thus neither roots 
nor stems are mere abstractions, though they have not been used as words in any 
existing language of the family. Many stems could be used indiscriminately to 
make verbs or nouns (See Introductory Note, p. 117). 

Examples of roots are es, be; 1, go; sta, stand; cap, take; duc, lead; 
fac, make ; fer, bear ; rap, seize; sed, sit ; ten, stretch (see also pp. 84, 85) ; 
da (ao), give ; dha (0E), put. 3 A few suffixes are verbal or doubtful. 

4 The Root is in this case often lengthened by vowel-increase also. 



§44 
1. b 



1 08 Etymology: Formation of Words. 

The Vowel suffixes a, i, u, are sometimes regarded as if merely 
added to the root to fit it for inflection ; but they are, in fact, true 
pronominal Roots, and must be regarded as formative suffixes. 

The first, a, is found in nouns and adjectives of a- and o-stems, as 
sonus, ludus, vagus, scriba, toga (root teg) ;* — i is less common, and in 
Latin has frequently been changed, as in rupes, or lost as in scobs 
(scobis, root scab); — u is disguised in most adjectives by an addi- 
tional i, as in sud-vis, 2 ten-uis (root ten in tendo), and remains alone only 
in nouns of the fourth declension, as acus (root AK, sharp, in acer, acies, 
uKvs),fiecu (root PAC, bind, in pac-iscor). 

The signification of the other primary suffixes is as follows : — 
a. ta (in the form to-) makes the regular perfect participle, as tectus, 
tectum ; sometimes active, as in potus, pransus ; and is found in a 
few not recognized as participles, as putus, z alius (alo). 
#. ti forms abstracts, rarely nouns of agency, as messis, vestis, pars, 

mens (where the i is lost). 
7. tu forms abstracts (including supines), sometimes becoming con- 
cretes, as actus, luctus. 
5. na, forming perfect participles in other languages, in Latin makes 
adjectives of like meaning, which often become nouns, as magnus 
(=mactus, root mag), plenus, regnum (compare eaten). 
e. ni, forms nouns of agency and adjectives, as ignis, segnis. 
C nu is rare, as in manus, sinus. 

7). ma has various meanings, as in animus, almus, fir mus, forma. 
0. va (commonly uo-)has active or passive meaning, as in equus, arvum, 

conspicuus, exiguus, vacivus {vacuus). 
k. ra (or la, a passive participle termination in other languages) is usually 
passive, as in ager, integer, pleri-que { — plenus = pletus), sella (for 
sed-la, cf. edpa). 
A. ya (forming gerundives in other languages) makes adjectives and 
abstracts, including many of the first and fifth declensions, as 
eximius, auddcia, Florentia, pernicies. 
fx. ka, sometimes primary, as in pauci (cf. iravpos), locusA In many 
cases the vowel of this termination is lost, leaving a consonant- 
stem : as, apex, cortex, and probably loquax. 
v. an (in, on-), in nouns of agency and abstracts : as, aspergo, compdgo 

(tnis), gero (onis). 
|. man (men: also used as a conscious derivative) expresses MEANS, 
often passing into the action itself : as, agme?i,fiumen. 



1 Observe that it is the stem, not the nominative, that is formed by the suffix, 
although the nominative is here given for convenience of reference. 

2 For S7iad-vis, cf. r?S-us. 3 Root pu, whence pur us. 

4 For stlocus, cf. Sk. sthara, sthala, Ger. Stelle, Eng. stall. 



Noun- Endings. 109 

0. tar, forming nouns of agency: as, pater (i.e. protector ), /rater (sup- 
porter), orator. 

ir. tra, forming nouns of means : as, claustrum, mulctrum. 

p. as (sometimes phonetically changed into er, or), forming names of 
actions : as, genus, furor. 

<t. ant, forming active participles : as, legem, with some adjectives 
from roots unknown : 2&,frequens, recens. 
The above, with some suffixes given below, belong to the original 

language, and most of them were not felt as living formations in the 

historical period. But developed forms of these, with a few other primary 

suffixes, were used consciously, generally as secondary suffixes added to 

noun or verb-stems. 

3. — Significant Endings. 

161. Derivative Nominal (noun and adjective) forms 
include, — 1. Nouns of Agency; 2. Names of Actions ; 
3. Adjectives (active or passive). 1 

162. Nouns of Agency include active adjectives and 
appellatives. Their significant endings are — 

a. tor 2 (euphonically sor ), M. ; trix, f. : as, 

cano, sing : cantor, singer; cantrix, songstress. 

vinco (vie), conquer : victor, victrix, conqueror {victorious). 

tondeo, shear : tonsor, tonstrix, hair-cutter. 

peto, seek : petitor, candidate. 

This termination may be added by analogy to noun-stems : as, 

via, way j viator, traveller. 

b. es (Itis), c, descriptive nouns : as, 

miles, soldier j hospes, guest. 

c. o (onis), m., connected with specific acts or trades : as, 

caupo, a huckster j combibo, pot-co?npanion. 



1 The derivative endings in conscious use, by which these are denoted, are 
given in the Nominative form. These suffixes are sometimes obscure, from the 
fact that after a pattern has been given in one form of stem, that form is taken as 
a type, and others are made to conform to it. Thus adjectives in -arms are prop- 
erly formed from a or o stems ; but after arms is established as a termination, it 
may be added to almost any noun : as, hojiorarius. So in English we form bear- 
able, think-able, with a suffix which is properly -ble, as in legi-ble, tolera-ble. 

2 This termination is added to the verb stem or root, and has the same euphonic 
change as the supine ending turn or sum: compare ama-tum, ama-tor ; can- 
turn, can-tor ; ton-sum, ton-sor. A similar change is made in the terminations 
tio, tiira, tus (see below, 163. b). 



no Etymology: Formation of Words. 

163. Names of Actions (passing into abstracts, instru- 
ments, or results) are derived from roots or verb-stems. 
Their significant endings are — 

a. or, m., es, is, f. ; us, ur, n. from roots : as, 

timeo, fear : timor, dread; sedeo, sit : sedes, seat. 
decet, it is becoming : decus, grace, beauty. 

b. io, tio, tura, tus (sio, sura, sus), making Verbal Abstracts, 

those in tus being more concrete : as, 

leg°> gather, enroll; legio, legion. 
insero (sa), implant j insitio, grafting. 
pingo (pig), paint; pictura, picture. 
sentio, feel; sensus, perception. 

c. men, mentum, monium, n., monia, F., 1 denoting act, means, 

result : as, 

fruor, enjoy ; frumentum, grain. 

testor, to witness ; testimonium, testimony. 

queror, complain ; querimonia, complaint. 

d. bulum, culum, brum, crum, trum, n., from verb-stems (rarely 

from nouns) : denoting means or instrument : as, 

candela, candle ; candelabrum, candlestick. 
tus (turis), incense; turibulum, a censer. 
veho, carry ; vehiculum, cart, vehicle. 
simulo, feign, pretend; simulacrum, image. 
claudo, to shut; claustrum, a bolt. 

e. ia, tia, tas, tus, tudo (do, go), f., abstracts (chiefly) from 

adjective stems, rarely becoming concrete : as. 
durus, hard; duritia (ies), sternness. 
audax, bold; audacia, daring. 
bonus, good; bonitas, kindness, fertility. 
senex, aged {an old man) ; senectus, old age. 
solus, alone ; solitudo, solitude. 
libet (lubet), it pleases; libido, wanto7iness, self-will. 

Stems ending in o, a, regularly change those vowels to i. 2 Many 
consonant-stems insert i after the analogy of i-stems, as logudcitas. 
f. ium (ya primary suffix) forms neuter abstracts, — usually from 
Nouns, giving the sense of offices ox groups : as, 

hospes, a guest ; hospitium, hospitality. 

servus, a slave; servitium, the slave-class, slavery. 

collega, a colleagite ; collegium, a college (as of augurs). 



1 Primary Suffixes man, mci7i-ta, 7nan-ya. 

2 It is possible that this i may have been originally a stem-vowel (compare ka 
in note on " Primary Suffixes)." 



Adjective Endings. 1 1 1 

! 

164. Adjective forms, often passing into Nouns, are 
Nominal (from nouns or adjectives), or Verbal (from 
verb-stems or roots). Their significant endings are — 

NOMINAL. 

a. ulus (after a vowel -olus; after s, n, r, -cuius), ellus, illus,— 

diminutives with endings for gender : as, 

rivus, a brook; rlvulus, a streamlet. 
gladius, a sword ; gladiolus, a S7nall sword. 
homo, a man : homunculus (homuncio) a dwarf. 
munus, a gift ; munusculum, a little gift. 
puer, a boy ; puella (puerula), a girl. 
codex, a block ; codicilli, writing-tablets. 

b. ades (as, f.), ides, ides (is, eis, F.), eus, patronymics, denot- 

ing Parentage, &c. : as, 

Tyndareus : Tyndarides, Castor or Pollux ; Tyndaris, Helen. 

Oileus : Ajax Oileus, son of Oileus. 

Atlas : Atlantiades, Mercury ; Atlantiades (Greek), the Pleiads. 

c. anus, enus, inus ; is, as, ensis ; ius, acus, icus, eus, eius, icius, 

iacus, gentile adjectives (derived from the names of places 
or peoples) ; with others denoting belonging to or coming 
from : as, 

Roma: Romanus, Roman; Sulla: Sullani, Syllds veterans. 
Cyzicus : Cyziceni, people of Cyzicus ; Liguria, Ligurmus. 
Arpinum : Arpinas, a native of Arpiniun (as Marius, Cicero). 
Sicilia : Siciliensis ; Ephesus : Ephesius ; Ilium : Iliacus. 
Epicurus : Epicureus (a disciple) ; Plato : Platonicus. 
libertus, one ^s freedman ; libertinus, of the class offreed?nen. 

d. alis, aris, elis, ilis, ulis, inus, nus, denote various modes of 

relation or possession : as, > 

populus, a people ; popularis, fellow-country ?nan. 

mors, death; mortalis, mortal. 

patruus, uncle ; patruelis, cousin. 

hostis, an ene7Jiy ; hostilis, hostile. 

currus, chariot; sella curulis, curule chair. 

vitulus, a calf ; vitulma [caro], veal. 

ver. spring ; vermis, vernal ; dies, day ; diurnus, daily. 

ovis, a sheep ; ovile, sheepfold; bos, ox; bovile, stall. 

e. ter (tris), timus, ternus, denote relations of place, time, &c. : as, 

campus, a plain; campester, level. 

fines, boundaries ; fmitimus, neighboring. 

diu, long (in time) ; diuturnus, lasting. 

heri (old hesi), yesterday ; hesternus, of yesterday. 



1 1 2 Etymology : Formation of Words, 

f atus, Itus, utus (participial forms from imaginary verb-stems, 
like the English horned), provided with : as, 

galea, a helmet j galeatus, helmed. 
auris, an ear; auritus, long-eared (a hare) . 
barba, a beard; barbatus, bearded (old-fashioned). 
versus, a turning ; versutus, crafty, adroit. 

g. eus, ius, inus, aceus, icius (participial), material or rela- 
tion : as, 

aurum, goldj aureus, golden. 

rex, a king ; regius, royal. 

bombyx, silk; bombycinus, silken. 

patres, the Fathers (Senators) ; patricius, patrician. 

collatus, brought together; collaticius. got by contribution. 

h. arius, orius, ius, icus, belonging to (m., of trades, &c. ; N., 
often of place) : as, 

argentum, silver; argentarius, broker, silversmith. 

ordo, rank, series ; ordinarius, regular. 

tepidus, lukewarm ; tepidarium, place for a warjn bath, 

uxor, wife ; uxorius, uxorious. 

bellum, war ; bellicus, warlike ; bellicum, battle-signal. 

i. etum, place : as, 

quercus, oak-tree; quercetum, an oak-grove. 

k. osus, olens, olentus, full of, prone to : as, 

fluctus, wave; fluctuosus, billowy. 
periculum, peril ; perlculosus, full of danger. 
vis, force; viole.ns, violentus, violent. 
vinum, wine; vlnolentus, vmosus, given to drink. 
ira, anger ; iracundus, passionate, wrathful. 

VERBAL. 

/. ax, idus, ulus, vus (uus, Ivus), adjectives, expressing the action 
as quality or tendency, — ax, often faulty or aggressive ; 
Ivus, oftener passive : as, 

pugno, to fight ; pugnax, pugnacious. 

audeo, to dare ; audax, bold. 

fmpio, to desire ; cupidus, eager. 

bibo, to drink ; bibulus, thirsty (as dry earth, &c). 

pr otero, to trample ; protervus, violent, wanton. 

noceo, do har7n ; nocuus, hurtflil, injurious. 

capio, take; cap tl vus, captive; M., a prisoner of war. 

77t. ilis, bills, ius, passive qualities (rarely active) : as, 

frango (frag), to break ; fragilis, frail. 

nosco (gno), to know ; nobilis, well k7iown,fa77ious. 

eximo, to take out, select ; eximius, choice, rare. 



Adjective Endings ; Formation of Verbs. 113 



n. minus, mnus, properly participles, 1 but no longer used as 
such : as, 

fe (obsolete root), produce j femina, woman. 
alo, to nourish j alumnus, a foster-child. 

o. ndus (endus, undus, the Gerund ending) forms a few active 
or reflexive adjectives : as, 

sequor, to follow j secundus, second, favorable (secundo flu- 
mine, down stream). 

roto, to whirl (from rota, wheel) ; rotundus, round (cf. vol- 
vendis mensibus, revolving months). 

p. bundus, cundus, participial, but denoting continuance of the 
act or quality : as, 

vito, to shun j vitabundus, (Sail.), dodging about. 
vagor, to roam j vagabundus, vagrant, vagabond. 
morior, to die; moribundus, in the agony of death. 

4. —Derivation of Verbs, 

165. Most verbs of the Third Conjugation, the 
Irregular verbs, and a few vowel-stems, 2 are primitive. 3 
Most others are either causative or denominative (formed 
from nouns or adjectives). 

166. The following are the regular Conjugational 
forms : — '• 

a. Verbs of the First conjugation may be formed from a great 
number of nouns or adjectives of the first or second declension, 
by changing the stem-vowel into the characteristic a : as, 

stimulus, a goad; stimulare, incite. 

aequus, just; aequare, to make equal. 

sal turn (salio), leap; s altar e (freq.), to dance. 

A few by a false analogy add the vowel to the noun-stem : as, 

vigil, watchful ; vigil- a-re, to keep guard. 
exsul, an exile ; exsul-a-re, to be in banishment. 
aestus, tide, seething; aestu-a-re, to surge, boil. 



1 Compare Greek -/xevo?. 2 As da-re, sta-re,fie-re, na-re, rie-re, re-ri. 

3 The consciousness of Roots was lost in Latin, so that of verbs not primitive 
in forming the parts only Stems are dealt with. Thus moneo (Skr. man-ay a-mi), 
monui (not menui), from root men, as in mens ; caedo, cecidi (not cecidi), from 
root cad (as in cddo). For modifications of the root in verb-stems, see pp. 84, 85. 
The derivative suffix in the regular conjugations is original ya added either to the 
root, the Present stem in a, or a Noun-stem. 



H4 Etymology: Formation of Words. 

b. A few verbs of the Second conjugation are formed in like 
manner from noun-stems ; but most are formed from the Root by 
adding the characteristic e, and are intransitive or neuter in their 
meaning : as, algere, to be cold; sedere, to sit. 

c. Some verbs in uo (Third conjugation) are primitive, formed 
from the Root by adding the stem- vowel e, originally a : as, flu-e-re, 
ru-e-re. Others add this vowel to a noun-stem ; this is regular 
with u stems : as, 

statu-s, condition; statu-e-re, to establish, resolve. 

d. Most verbs of the Fourth conjugation add the character- 
istic I to the Root : as, sop-ire, to put to sleep; sal-i-re, to leap. 
Some are formed from i-stems (nouns) : as, 

f ini-s, end, li7nit ; f Inl-re, to bound. 
siti-s, thirst; siti-re, to be thirsty. 

5.— Derivative Verbs. 

167. The following classes of regular derivatives have 
meanings corresponding to their form : — 

a. Inceptives or Inchoatives end in -sco, and denote the 
beginning of an action : as, calesco, / grow warm (caleo) ; ves- 
perascit, it is getting late (vesper). They are of the third conju- 
gation, and have only the present stem, though often completed by 
forms of simple verbs : as, calesco, calui (from caleo, to be hot). 1 

b. Intensives or Iteratives 2 end in -to or -ito (rarely-so), 
and denote a forcible or repeated action : as, jacto, to hurl 
(jacio) ; dictito, to keep on saying (dico) ; quasso, to shatter 
(quatio). They are of the first conjugation, and are properly 
Denominative, derived from the participle in tus. 

c. Another form of Intensives — sometimes called Meditatives, 
or verbs of practice — ends in esso (rarely isso), denoting a certain 
energy or eagerness of action : as, capesso, to lay hold on ; facesso, 
to do (with energy) ; petisso, to seek (eagerly). They are of the 3d 
conjugation, usually having the perfect and supine of the 4th : as, 

lacesso, lacessere, lacessivi, lacessitum, to provoke. 

d. Diminutives (derived from real or supposed diminutive 
nouns) end in -illo, and denote a feeble or petty action : as, can- 
tillare, to chirp or warble (cano, sing). 



1 In the narrative tenses, the inceptive and complete action naturally become 
confounded. 

2 Iteratives (or Frequentatives), though distinct in meaning from Intensives, 
are not always distinguished from them in form. 



Compound Words. 115 

e. Desideratives end in iirio, expressing longing or wish, and 
are of the fourth conjugation. Only three are in common use : 
viz., empturio (emo, buy), esurio (edo, eat), parturio (pario, 
bring forth). Others occur for comic effect in the dramatists. 
They are derived from some noun of agency in tor or sor (as 
empturio, from emptor). Viso is a regular inherited desiderative 
of an earlier formation. 

6. — Compound Words. 

168. New stems are formed by composition as fol- 
lows : 1 — 

a. The second part is simply added to the first: as, 

su-ove-taurilia (sus, ovis, taurus), the sacrifice of a hog, 

sheep, bull. 
septen-decim (septem, decern), seventeen. 

b. The first modifies the second as an adjective or adverb : as, 

latifundium (latus, fundus), a large landed estate. 
paeninsula (paene, insula), a peninsula. \_kindly. 

benevolus (bene, volus, from root of volo), well-wishing, 

c The first part has the force of a case, and the second a verbal 
force : as, 

agricola (ager, colo), a fanner. 
armiger (arma, gero), armor-bearer. 
cornicen (cornu, cano), horn-blower. 
carnifex (caro, facio), executioner. 

d. Compounds of either of the above kinds, in which the last 
word is a noun, acquire the signification of adjectives, meaning 
possessed of the property denoted : as, 

alipes (ala, pes), wing-footed. 

magnanimus (magnus, animus), great-souled. 

concors (cum, cor), harmonious. 

anceps (amb-, caput), doubtful (having a head at both ends). 



1 In these compounds only the second part receives inflection. This is most 
commonly the proper inflection of the last stem ; but, as this kind of composition 
is in fact older than inflection, the compounded stem sometimes has an inflection 
of its own (as, cornicen, -cinis ; lucifer, -feri; judex, -diets), from stems not occur- 
ring in Latin. Especially do adjectives in Latin take the form of i-stems : as, 
animus, exanimis ; norma, abnormis (See Note, p. 37). The stems regularly have 
their uninflected form. But o- and a-stems weaken the vowels to i as in ali- 
pes / and i is so common a termination of compounded stems, that it is often 
added to stems which do not properly have it : as, foedi-fragus (for foederi- 
fragus: foedus, f ran go). 



n6 Etymology: Compound Words. 

169. In many compounds, words already inflected have 
grown together more closely. Examples are — 

a. Compounds of facio, facto, with an actual or formerly exist- 
ing verbal stem in e. These are Causative in force : as, consue- 
facio (consuesco), to habituate ; calefacio, calefacto, to heat. 

b. An adverb or noun combined with a verb : as, benedico 
(bene, dico), to bless ; satago (satis, ago), to be busy enough. 

c. Many apparent stem-compounds : as, fidejubeo (iidei, 
jubeo), to give surety ; mansuetus (manui, suetus), tame. 

170. Many compounds are formed by prefixing a 
Particle to some other part of speech : viz., 

a. Prepositions are prefixed to Verbs or Adjectives, retaining 
their original adverbial sense : x as, 

a. ab, away : au-ferre (ab-fero), to take away. 
ad, to, towards : af-ferre (ad-fero), to bring. 

ante, before : ante-ferre, to prefer ; ante-cellere, to excel. 

circum, around : circum-munire, to fortify completely. 

com, con (cum), together or forcibly : con-ferre, to bring 

together ; col-locare, to set firm. 
de, down, utterly : de-spicio, despise; destruo, destroy. 
e, ex, out : ef-ferre (ec-fero), to carry forth, uplift. 
in (with verbs), in, on, against : in-ferre, to bear against. 
inter, between, to pieces : inter- rump ere, to interrupt. 
ob, towards, to meet : of-ferre, to offer ; ob- venire, to meet. 
sub, under, in low degree: sub-struere, to build beneath. 
super, upon, over and above : super-fluere, to overflows 

superstes, a survivor. 

b. Verbs are also compounded with the following inseparable 
Particles, which do not appear as prepositions in Latin : 

amb (am, an), around : amblre, to go about (cf. d/z$i). 
dis, di, asunder, apart : discedere, to depart (cf. duo), 
por, forward : portendere, to hold forth, predict (cf. porro). 
red, re, back : redlre, to return. 
sed, se, apart : secerno, to separate (cf. sed, but). 

c. An adjective is sometimes modified by an adverb prefixed. 
Of these, per (less commonly prae), very, sub, somewhat, in, not, 
are regular, and may be prefixed to almost any adjective : as, 

per-magnus, very large; prae-longus, very long. 
sub-rusticus, rather countrified ; in-f initus, boundless. 



1 They sometimes, however, have the force of prepositions, especially ad, in, 
circum, trans, and govern the case of a noun. 



PART SECOND. 



USE OF WORDS (SYNTAX). 



INTRODUCTORY NOTE. 

The study of formal grammar arose at a late period in the history 
of language, and deals with language as fully developed. The terms 
of Syntax correspond accordingly to the logical habits of thought that 
have grown up at such a period, and have therefore a logical as well as 
a simply grammatical meaning. But Syntax as thus developed is not 
essential to language as such. A form of words — like O puerum pul- 
crum ! — may express a thought, and in some languages might even be 
a sentence ; while it does not logically declare any thing, and does not, 
strictly speaking, make what we call a sentence at all. 

At a very early period of spoken language, there is no doubt that 
Roots were significant in themselves, and constituted the whole of the 
language, — just as to an infant the name of some familiar object will 
stand for all it can say about it. At a somewhat later stage, two 
simple roots put side by side 1 make a rudimentary form of proposition : 
as a child might say fire bright ; horse run. With this begins the 
first form of logical distinction, that of Subject and Predicate ; but 
as yet there is no distinction between noun and verb either in form or 
function. Roots are presently specialized, or modified in meaning, by 
addition of other roots either pronominal or verbal, and Stems are 
formed ; but the same stem could still be either noun-stem or verb- 
stem. Still later — by combination chiefly of different pronominal ele- 
ments with verb-stems and with noun-stems — Inflections are developed 
to express person, tense, case, and other grammatical relations, 2 and we 
have true parts of speech. 

Not until language reached this last stage was there any limit to the 
association of words, or any rule prescribing the manner in which they 
should be combined. But gradually, by custom, particular forms came 

1 Called parataxis, in contrast with Syntaxis, " combination." 

2 Sometimes called accidents: hence the " accidence " of the language. Com- 
pare pp. 14, N. 1 ; 63, N. 2 ; 65, N. 1. 



45 



1 1 8 Syntax : Introductory Note, 

to be limited to special uses, or were produced to serve those uses ; 
and rules were established for combining words in what we now call 
Sentences. 1 These rules are in part general laws or forms of thought 
(Logic), resulting from our habits of mind (General Grammar) ; and 
in part are what may be called By-Laws, established by custom in a 
given language (Particular Grammar), and making what is called the 
Syntax of that language. 2 

In the fully developed methods of expression to which we are almost 
exclusively accustomed, the unit of expression is the Sentence ; that 
is, the completed statement, with its distinct Subject and Predicate. 
These, starting with the simple noun and verb, undergo successive 
modifications and combinations corresponding with our habitual forms 
of thought, and constitute the subject-matter of Syntax as shown in the 
annexed Outline. 

I. A Sentence may be either Simple or Compound : viz., 

1. Simple : containing a single statement (Subject and Predicate). 
r ( a. Containing two or more Co-ordinate Clauses. 

2. compound: i L Modified by Subordinate Clauses (complex). 

II. The Essential Parts of the Sentence are — 

1. The Subject : consist- j a. Noun or its equivalent. 

ing of \ b. Pronoun contained in verb-ending. 

m , _, f a. Neuter (intransitive) Verb. 

2. The Predicate : con- I ^ Copula ^ th Comple ; ment . 

sistmg ol y c Verb wkh object. 

III. The Subject and Predicate may be Modified as follows : — 

a. Noun in Apposition. 



The Noun (Subject or 
Object) by 



b. Adjective or Participle. 

c. Noun in Oblique Case. 

d. Preposition with its case. 

e. Relative Clause. 

f a. Adverb or Adverbial Phrase. 



2. The Verb (predicate) by \ b. Predicate Adjective. 
[ c. Subordinate Clause. 

.. Rules of Agreement (the Four Concords). 
IV. Hence : x 



■{: 



Rules of Government (Construction of Cases). 



1 The meaning of Sentence is " Thought " {sententia from sentire). The 
grammatical form of the sentence is the form in which the thought is expressed. 

2 In most languages there still remain traces of the wiorganized forms of 
expression ; as for example the nominative or accusative in Exclamations, the 
use of Interjections generally, and the omission of the Copula. These are some- 
times wrongly regarded as cases of Ellipsis. 



Tlie Sentence: Subject and Predicate. 119 

Chapter I. — The Sentence. 

Definitions. 

171. A Sentence is a form of words which contains 
either a Statement, a Question, an Exclamation, or a 
Command. 

a. A sentence in the form of a Statement is called a Declar- 
ative Sentence : as, equus currit, the horse runs. 

b. A sentence in the form of a Question is called an Inter- 
rogative Sentence : as, equusne currit? does the horse run? 

c. A sentence in the form of an Exclamation is called an 
Exclamatory Sentence : as, quam celeriter currit equus ! 
how fast the horse runs / 

d. A sentence in the form of a Command is called an Impera- 
tive Sentence : as, currat equus, let the horse run. 

Subject and Predicate. 

172. The Subject of a sentence is the person or thing 
spoken of ; the Predicate is that which is stated of the 
Subject. 

173. Every complete sentence must contain a Subject 
and a Verb. 1 The Subject (when declined) is in the 
Nominative Case : as, 

equus currit, the horse runs. 
regina sedet, the queen sits. 
Note. — In certain constructions the verb is in the Infinitive 
mood, and its subject is put in the Accusative. 

174. The Subject of a sentence is usually a Noun, 

or some word or phrase used for a noun. But in Latin 

it may be contained 2 in the termination 3 of the verb 

itself : as, 

sedemus, we sit ; curritis, you run. 

1 The meaning of Verb (verbum) is "word," as being the only part of speech 
that strictly declares (predicates) any thing. 

2 This is true, however, in general, only when the verb is of the first or second 
person (cf. 206). With the third person on account of the variety of possible 
subjects a definite one must be expressed, unless implied in what goes before or 
follows. 3 See p. 63, n. 2. 



120 Syntax: The Sentence. 

175. The Verb may contain an entire statement in 
itself, and require no other word to complete the sense 
(a Neuter or Intransitive verb) : as, 

aro, I plough (am ploughing). 

sol lucet, the sun shines. 

sunt viri fortes, there are brave men. 
Thus, as in the first example, a sentence in Latin may consist 
of a verb alone. The verb to be, used as in the last example to 
make a complete statement, is called the Substantive Verb. 

176. A Neuter verb is often followed by a noun or 
an adjective to complete the statement. This is called 
the Complement : as, 

Quintus sedet judex, Quintus sits [as] judge. 
Caesar victor incedit, Ccesar advances victorious. 
hi viri sunt fortes, these men are brave. 

a. The verb to be, when thus followed by an attribute, is called 
the Copula (i.e. link). In like manner, verbs signifying to becoi7ie, 
to be ?nade, to be named, to appear, and the like, which serve 
to connect a Subject with a Predicate, are called Copulative 
(i.e. coupling or connecting) Verbs. 

b. The case of the Predicate after esse and similar verbs is 
the same with that of the Subject : as, 

Roma est patria nostra, Rome is our native place. 

stellae lucidae erant, the stars were bright. 

puerum decet esse modestum, it becomes a boy to be modest. 

177. The action of many verbs (called transitive) 
passes over upon an Object. This Object in Latin is 
in the Accusative Case : as, 

pater vocat f ilium, the father calls (his) son. 
videmus lunam et Stellas, we see the moon and stars. 
Note. — The distinction between transitive and intransitive is 
not fixed, but most transitive verbs can be used without an object, 
and many intransitive verbs with one (see 237. b). 

a. The direct Object of a transitive verb becomes its Subject when 
in the Passive voice, and is put in the Nominative Case : as, 
filius apatre vocatur, the son is called by [his] father, 
luna et stellae videntur, the moon and stars appear (are seen). 



The Object: Modification. 12 1 

b. With certain verbs, the genitive, dative, or ablative may be 
used where the corresponding English verbs from a difference in 
meaning require the objective. Thus — 

i. hominem video, I see the man (Accusative). 

2. homini servio, I serve the man (Dative). 

3. hominis misereor, I pity the man (Genitive). 

4. homine amlco utor, I treat the man as a friend (Ablative). 

c. Many verbs transitive in Latin are translated in English by a 
verb requiring a preposition (intransitive) : as, 

petit aprum, he aims at the boar. 

Note. — One or more words, essential to the grammatical com- 
pleteness of a sentence, but clear enough to the mind of a hearer, 
are often omitted: this is called Ellipsis, and the sentence is 
called an Elliptical Sentence. 

Modification. 

178. A Subject or a Predicate of any kind may be 
modified by single words, or by a Phrase or a Clause. 
The modifying word or group of words may itself be 
modified in the same way. 

a. A single modifying word is either an Adjective, an Adverb, 
an Appositive, or the oblique case of a Noun. Thus in the sen- 
tence a brave man suffers patiently, the adjective brave modifies the 
subject mart, and the adverb patiently modifies the predicate suffers. 

b. The modifying word is in some cases said to limit the word 
to which it belongs. Thus in the sentence pueri patrem video, 
/ see the bofs father, the genitive pueri limits patrem (i.e. by 
excluding any other father). 

179. A Phrase is a group of words, without subject 
or predicate of its own, which may be used as an Adjec- 
tive or Adverb. 

Thus in the sentence he was a man of great strength, the words 
I of great strength are used for the adjective strong (or very 
strong), and are called an Adjective Phrase. In the sentence 
he came with great speed, the words with great speed are used for 
the adverb quickly (or very quickly), and are called an Adverbial 
Phrase. 



122 Syntax: The Sentence. 

180. A Sentence containing a single statement is 
called a Simple Sentence. If it contains more than 
one statement, it is called a Compound Sentence, and 
each single statement in it is called a Clause. 

a. If one statement is simply added to another, the clauses are 
said to be Co-ordinate. The two are usually connected by some 
word called a Co-ordinate Conjunction (see p. 104). 

b. If one statement is subordinate to another, as modifying it in 
some way, the clause is said to be Subordinate, and the sen- 
tence is sometimes called Complex. This subordination is in- 
dicated by some connecting word, either a Relative or Subordinate 
Conjunction. 

c. Any clause introduced by a Relative is called a Relative 
Clause ; if by an Adverb of Time, a Temporal Clause. 

d. A clause containing a Condition, introduced by if or some 
equivalent, is called a Conditional Clause. A sentence modi- 
fied by a conditional clause is called a Conditional Sentence. 

e. A clause expressing the Purpose of an action is called a 
Final Clause ; one expressing its Result is called a Consecu- 
tive Clause. 1 

f. Sentences or clauses are regularly connected by means of 
Conjunctions ; but frequently in Latin — more rarely in English 
— independent sentences are connected by Relatives. In this 
case, the relative is often best translated in English by a con- 
junction with a demonstrative : as, 

quo cum venisset, and when he had co7ne there. 
quae cum ita sint, but since these things are so. 

Agreement. 

181. A word is said to Agree with another when it 
is required by usage to be in the same Gender, Number, 
Case, or Person. 

182. The following are the general forms of Agree- 
ment, sometimes called the Four Concords: 



1 Observe that these classes are not exclusive, but that a single clause may- 
belong to several of them at once. Thus a Relative clause may be subordinate, 
or conditional ; and two subordinate clauses may be co-ordinate with each other. 



Agreement: Nouns. 123 

1. The agreement of the Noun in Apposition or as Predicate. 

2. The agreement of the Adjective with its Noun. 

3. The agreement of the Relative with its Antecedent. 

4. The agreement of the Verb with its Subject. 

When a word takes the gender or number of some other word 
implied in that with which it should agree, this use is called 
Synesis, or constructio ad sensum. 

NOUNS. 

183. A noun used to describe another, and denoting 
the same thing, agrees with it in Case : as, 

Servius rex, Servius the king. 

ad urbem Athenas, to the city [of] Athens. 

Cicero consul creatur, Cicero is chosen consul. 

Apposition. 

184. When the descriptive noun is in the same part 
of the sentence (subject or predicate), it is called an 
Appositive, and the use is called Apposition : as, 

externus timor, maximum concordiae vinculum, jungebat animos (Liv. 

ii. 39), fear of the foreigner, the chief bond of harmony, united hearts. 

[Here both nouns belong to the subject. \ 
quattuor hie, primum omen, equos vidi (JEn. iii. 537), I saw here four 

horses, the first omen. [Here both nouns are in the predicate.] 
litteras Graecas senex didici (Cat. M. 8), I learned Greek when an old 

man. [Here senex is in apposition with the subject of didici, 

expressing the time, condition, &c, of the act.] 

a. An appositive with two or more nouns is in the plural : as, 
Gnaeus et Publius Scipiones, the Scipios, Cneius and Publius. 

b. The appositive generally agrees in Gender and Number 
when it can : as, 

sequuntur naturam, optimam ducem (Lael. 19), they follow nature, 

the best guide. 
omnium doctrinarum mventrices Athenas (De Or. i. 4), Athens, 

discoverer of all learning. 

c. A common noun in apposition with a Locative is put in the 
Ablative, with or without the preposition in : as, 

Antiochlae, celebri quondam urbe (Arch. 3), at Antioch, once a famous 

city. 
Albae constiterunt in urbe munita (Phil. iv. 2), they halted at Alba, 

a fortified town. 



§45 



§46 



124 Syntax: Adjectives. 

d. The genitive can be used in apposition with Possessives, 
taking the gender and number of the implied subject (compare 
197. a) : as, 

in nostro omnium fletu (Mil. 34), amid the tears of us all. 

ex Anniana Milonis domo ( Att. iv. 3), out of Annius Mile's house. 

Note. — The proper Appositive is sometimes put in the Gen- 
itive (see 214./). 

Predicate Agreement. 

185. When the descriptive noun is used to form a 
predicate, it is called a Predicate Nominative (or 
other case, as the construction may require) : as, 

consules creantur Caesar et Servilius (B. C. iii. 1), Ccesar and Servilius 
are made consuls. [Here consules is predicate-nominative after 
creantur.] 

Ancum Marcium regem populus creavit (Liv. i. 32), the people made 
Ancus Marcius king. [Here regem is the predicate accusative.'] 

ADJECTIVES. 
Kule of Agreement. 

186. Adjectives, Adjective Pronouns, and Participles 
agree with their nouns in gender, number, and case. 

vir fortis, a brave man. 

urbium magnarum, of great cities. 

cum ducentis militibus, with 200 soldiers. 

a. An Attributive adjective simply qualifies the noun without 
the intervention of a verb : as, 

bonus imperator, a good co?nmander. 

b. A Predicate adjective is connected with its noun by esse, or 
a verb of similar meaning, expressed or implied : as, 

stellae lucidae erant, the stars were bright. 

c. A predicate adjective may also be used in Apposition like a 
noun : as, 

Scipionem vivum vidi, I saw Scipio in his life-time. 

d. With two or more nouns the adjective is plural ; also, rarely, 
when they are connected by cum : as, 

Nisus et Euryalus primi (JEn. v. 394), Nisus and Euryalus first. 
Juba cum Labieno capti (B. Afr. 52), Juba and Labienus were taken. 



Agreement of Adjectives. 125 

187. When nouns are of different genders, an attrib- 
utive adjective agrees with the nearest : as, 

multae operae ac laboris, of much trouble and toil. 
vita moresque mei, my life and character. 

si res, si vir, si tempus ullum dignum fuit (Mil. 7), if any thing, if any 
man, if any time was fit. 

a. A predicate adjective may agree with the nearest of two 
nouns if the two form one connected idea : as, 

factus est strepitus et admurmuratio (Verr. i. 15), a noise of assent 

was ?nade. 

N. B. This is only when the Copula agrees with the nearest 
subject. 

b. Generally, a predicate adjective will be masculine, if nouns 
of different genders mean living beings; neuter, if things without 
life : as, 

uxor deinde ac liberi amplexi (Liv. ii. 40), then his wife and children 
embraced him. 

labor (m.) voluptasque (f.), societate quadam inter se naturali sunt 
juncta (n.) (id. v. 4), labor and delight are bound together by a certain 
natural alliance. 

c. Abstract nouns of the same gender may have a neuter ad- 
jective (see 189. c.) : as, 

stultitia et temeritas et injustitia . . . sunt fugienda (Fin. iii. 11), 

folly, rashness, and injustice are [things] to be shun?ied. 

d. A masculine or feminine adjective may conform (by Synesis) 
to the gender or number of the persons implied in a noun of 
different gender or number : as, 

pars certare parati (^En. v. 108), apart ready to contend. 

duo millia relicti (Liv. xxxvii. 39), two thousand were left. 

coloniae aliquot deductae, Prisci Latini appellati (id. i. 3), several 

colonies were led out [of men] called Old Latins. 
magna pars raptae (id. i. 9), a large part [of the women] were seized. 
omnis aetas currere obvii (id. xxvii. 51), [people of] every age ran to 
meet them. 

e. A superlative in the predicate sometimes takes the gender of 
a partitive genitive : as, 

velocissimum animalium delphinus est (Plin.), the dolphin is the 
swiftest of creatures. 



§47 
2. 



2. a 



2.b 



2. o 



2. d 



2. e 

p. 180 



2. f 



126 Syntax: Adjectives. 

Special Uses. 

188. Adjectives are often used as Nouns, the mascu- 
line usually to denote men or people in general of that 
kind, the feminine women, and the neuter things : as, 

omnes, all men {everybody), omnia, all things {everything). 

majores, ancestors. minores, descendants. 

Romani, Romans. barbari, barbarians. 

liberta, a freedwo?nan. Sabinae, the Sabine wives. 

sapiens, a sage {philosopher), amicus, a friend. 

Remark. — The singular of adjectives in this use is more rare, 
except with a few words which have become practically nouns, such as 
affinis, amicus, avdrus, familiaris, propinquus, sapiens, vicinus, and neuters 
like those in 189. a ; the plural is very frequent, and may be used of any 
adjective or participle, to denote those in general described by it. 

a. Certain adjectives have become practically nouns, and are 
often modified by other adjectives : as, 

meus aequalis, a ?nan of my own age. 

familiaris tuus, an intimate friend of yoicrs (comp. 218. d). 

b. When any ambiguity would arise from the use of the adjec- 
tive alone, a noun must be added : as, 

boni, the good ; omnia, everything {all things) ; but — 
vir bonus, a good ?nan (cf. Remark above), 
potentia omnium rerum, power over everything. 

c. Many adjectives are used alone in the singular, with the 
added meaning of some noun which is understood from constant 
association : as, 

Africus [ventus], the south-west wind. 
vitulina [caro], veal {calf s flesh). 
fera [bestia], a wild beast. 
patria [terra], the fatherland. 
hiberna [castra], winter quarters. 
triremis [navis], a three-ba7iked galley. 
argentarius [faber], a silversmith. 
regia [domus,] the palace. 
Note. — These are specific in meaning, not generic like those above. 

d. A noun is sometimes used as an adjective, and may be quali- 
fied by an adverb : as, 

victor exercitus, the victorious army. 
servum pecus, a servile troop. 
admodum puer, quite a boy {childish). 
magis vir, more of a man. * 



Adjectives : Special Uses. 127 

189. A Neuter adjective has the following special 
uses : — 

a. The neuter singular may denote either a single object or an 
abstract quality : as, 

rapto vivere, to live by plunder. 

in arido, on dry ground. 

honestum, an honorable act, ox virtue (as a quality). 

opus est maturato, there is need of haste (cf. impersonal passives). 

b. The neuter plural is used to signify objects in general having 
the quality denoted, and hence the abstract idea : as, 

honesta, honorable deeds (in general). 

praeterita, the past. 

omnes fortia laudant, all men praise bravery. 

c. A neuter Appositive or Predicate may be used with a noun 

of different gender : as, 

turpitudo pejus est quam dolor (Tusc. ii. 13), disgrace is [a thing] 
worse than pain. 

d. A neuter adjective is used in agreement with an Infinitive 
or a Substantive Clause : as, 

aliud est errare Caesarem nolle, aliud nolle misereri (Lig. 5), it is one 
thing to be unwilling that Ccesar should err, another to be unwilling 
that he should pity. 

Possessives. 

190. Possessive and other derivative adjectives are 
often used in Latin where English has the possessive, or 
a noun with a preposition (compare 184. d; 197. a) : as, 

pugna Cannensis, the fight at Canna*. 

C. Blossius Cumamis, Caius Blossius of Cunia*. 

aiiena domus, another man's house. 

Caesarma celeritas (Att. xvi. 10), a despatch like C&sar's. 

a. Possessive adjectives are often used without a noun to de- 
note some special class or relation : as, 

nostri, our countrymen or men of our party. 
Sullani, the veterans of Sylld's ar?ny. 
Pompeiani, the partisans of Pompey. 

b. A possessive adjective is sometimes apparently used for the 
Objective Genitive by a different conception of the idea : as, 

metus hostilis (Jug. 41), fear of the enemy. 

feminea in poena (Virg.), in the punishment of a woman. 

periculo invidiae meae (Cat. ii. 2), at the risk of odium against me. 



128 Syntax: Adjectives ; Pronouns. 

191. An adjective, with the subject or object, is often 
used to qualify the act, having the force of an adverb : as, 

primus venit, he came first (was the first to come)* 
nullus dubito, / no way doubt. 
laeti audiere, they were glad to hear. 

erat Romae frequens (Rose. Am. 6), he was often at Rome, 
serus in caelum redeas (Hor. Od. i. 2), mafst thou return late to 
heaven. 

192. When two qualities of an object are compared, 
both adjectives (or adverbs) are in the comparative : as, 

longior quam latior acies erat (Liv. xxvii. 48), the line was longer than 
it was broad (or, rather long than broad ). 

a. Where magis is used, both adjectives are in the positive : as, 
clari, magis quam honesti (Jug. 8), more renowned than honorable. 

b. A comparative with a positive, or even two positives, may 
be connected by quam (a rare and less elegant use) : as, 

vehementius quam caute (Agric. 4), with more fury than good heed. 
Claris majoribus quam vetustis (Ann. iv. 61), of a family more famous 
than old. 

193. Superlatives (and more rarely comparatives) de- 
noting order and succession — also medius, ceterus, reli- 
quits — usually designate not what object, but what part 
of it, is meant: as, 

summus mons, the top of the hill. 

in ultima platea, at the end of the place. 

prior actio, the earlier part of an action. 

reliqui captivi, the rest of the prisoners. 

in colle medio (B. G. i. 24), on the middle of the hill. 

inter ceteram planitiem (Jug. 92), in a region elsewhere level. 

Note. — A similar use is found in such expressions as sera 
(jnulta) node. But also, medium viae, multwn diei. 

PRONOUNS. 

Note. — Pronouns indicate some person or thing without either 
naming or describing. They are derived from a distinct class of roots, 
which seem to have denoted only ideas of place and direction, and from 
which nouns or verbs can very rarely be formed. Pronouns may there- 



Pronouns : Personal and Demonstrative. 129 

fore stand for Nouns when the object, being present to the senses or 
imagination, needs only to be pointed out. Some indicate the object in 
itself, without reference to its class, and have no distinction of gender. 
These are Personal Pronouns. They therefore stand syntactically 
for Nouns, and have the same construction as nouns. Some indicate a 
particular object of a class, and take the gender of the individuals of 
that class. These are called Adjective Pronouns. They therefore 
stand for Adjectives, and have the same construction as adjectives. 
Some are used in both ways ; and, though called adjective pronouns, 
may also be treated as personal, taking, however, the gender of the 
object indicated. 

Personal. 

194. The Personal Pronouns have, in general, the 
same construction as nouns. 

a. The personal pronouns are not expressed in Latin, except 
for distinction or emphasis (compare 346. d) : as, 

te voco, I call you ; but — 

quis me vocat ? ego te voco, who calls me ? it is I. 

b. The personal pronouns have two forms for the genitive plural, 
that in urn being used partitively, and that in i oftenest objec- 
tively : as, 

major nostrum, the elder of us. 

habetis ducem memorem vestri, oblitum sui (Cat. iv. 9), you have a 

leader who thinks of you and forgets himself. 
pars nostrum, a part of us. 
nostri melior pars animus est (Sen.), the better part of us is the soul. 

Note. — " One of themselves " is expressed by unus ex suis or ipsis 
(rarely ex se) or suorum. The genitives nostrum^ vestrum, are rarely 
used objectively : cupidus vestrum (Verr. iii. 96), custos vestrum (Cat. 
iii. 12). 

Demonstrative. 

195. The Demonstrative Pronouns 1 are treated as 
adjectives in agreement, but are often used as personal 
pronouns. This use is regular in the oblique cases, 
especially of is : as, 

Caesar et exercitus ejus, Cczsar and his army. 
vidi eum rogavique, / saw hi7n and asked [him]. 



1 For the special significations of these demonstratives, see page 53. 

9 



130 Syntax: Pronouns. 

a. The demonstratives are used as pronouns of reference, 
to indicate a noun or phrase with emphasis, like the English 
that : as, 

nullam virtus aliam mercedem desiderat praeter hanc laudis (Arch. 1 1 ), 
Virtue wants no other reward except that [just spoken of] of praise. 

b. The demonstrative as a pronoun of reference is commonly 
omitted, or some other construction is preferred : as, 

memoriae artem quam oblivionis malo, / prefer the art of memory to 

that of forgetfulness. 
Caesaris exercitus Pompeianos ad Pharsalum vicit, the army of Ccesar 

defeated that of Pompey at Pharsalus. 

c. When a quality is ascribed with emphasis to an object 
already named, is or idem (often with the concessive quidem) is 
used to indicate that object : as, 

vincula, eaque sempiterna (Cat. iv -. 4), imprisonment, and that perpetual. 

d. An adjective pronoun agrees in gender with a word in apposi- 
tion or a predicate rather than with its antecedent : as, 

rerum caput hoc erat, hie fons (Hor. Ep. i. 17), this was the head of 

things, this the source. 
earn sapientiam interpretantur quam adhuc mortalis nemo est con- 

secutus [for id . . . quod] (Lael. 5), they explain that [thing] to be 

wisdom which no man ever yet attained. 

e. Idem is often equivalent to an adverb or adverbial phrase 
(also, too, yet, at the same tune) : as, 

oratio splendida et grandis et eadem in primis faceta (Brut. 79), 

an oration, brilliant, able, and very witty too. 
cum [haec] dicat, negat idem in Deo esse gratiam (N. D. i. 43), 

whejt he says this, he de7iies also that there is mercy with God. 

f. Ipse, self (intensive), is used with any of the other pronouns 
or a noun for the sake of emphasis : as, 

turpe mihi ipsi videbatur (Cic.), even to me it seems disgraceful. 

id ipsum, that very thing. 

quod ipsum, which of itself alone. 

in eum ipsum locum, to that very place. 

Remark. — The emphasis of ipse is often expressed in English by 
just, very, mere, &c. (see above examples). 

g. Ipse is used alone as an emphatic pronoun of the third 
person : as, 

mihi satis, ipsis non satis (Cic), enough for me, not for themselves. 
omnes boni quantum in ipsis fuit (id.), all good men so far as was in 
their power. 



Pronouns : Demonstrative and Reflexive. 131 

beatos illos qui cum adesse ipsis non licebat aderant tamen (id.), happy 
they who, when it was not allowed them to attend in person, still 
were there. 

et nomen pads dulce est, et ipsa res salutaris (id.), the name of Peace 
is sweet, and the thi?ig itself is wholesome. 

h. Ipse is used alone to emphasize an omitted subject of the 

first or second person : as, 

vobiscum ipsi recordamini (Cic), remember in your own minds. 

i. Ipse sometimes refers to a principal personage, to distinguish 
him from subordinate persons : as, 

ipse dixit (cf. avrbs e<pa), he (the Master) said it. 

Nomentanus erat super ipsum (Hor.), Nomentanus was above [the 
host] himself (at table). 

k. Ipse is often (is rarely) used instead of an indirect reflexive, 
to avoid ambiguity ; and in later writers is sometimes found instead 
of the direct reflexive : as, 

cur de sua virtute aut de ipsius diligentia desperarent ? (B. G. i. 40), 
why (he asked) should they despair of their own courage or his 
diligence ? 

qui mortuo Dario ipsas tueretur reperisse (Q. C. x. 5), we found one 
(said she) to protect us after the death of Darius. 

omnia aut ipsos aut hostes populatos (id. iii. 5), either they or the 
enemy had laid all waste. 

/. Ipse is usually put in the case of the Subject, even where 
the real emphasis appears to be or even is on a reflexive in the 
Predicate : as, 

me ipse consolor, I console myself '(not me ipsum, as the English would 
lead us to expect). 

Reflexive. 

196. The Reflexive Pronoun (se), 1 and usually its cor- 
responding possessive (suus), is used in some part of 
the Predicate, 2 referring to the Subject of the sentence 
or clause : as, 

virtus se novit, virtue knows itself. 

Brutus amicum suum occidit, Brutus killed his friend. 

promisit se venturum [esse], 2 he promised to coine. 



1 This seems to have been originally the personal pronoun of the third person 
(Skr. sva and Gr. o-<£et?), but came by use to be purely reflexive. 

2 This is very often a form of Indirect Discourse. In this case, the Reflexive 
in a subordinate clause may often be ambiguous, though less frequently in Latin 



132 Syntax: Pronouns. 

a. In subordinate clauses, the reflexive is commonly used in 
reference to the subject of the main clause : as, 

Iccius nuntium ad eum mittit, nisi subsidium sibi submittatur, etc. 

(B. G. ii. 6), sends him a message that unless relief be furnished him 

(Iccius), &c. 
quern salutem suam crediturum sibi (Q. C. iii. 8)? who would trust 

his safety to him [Darius] ? 

b. The Reflexive sometimes refers to a main clause which has 
been grammatically suppressed : as, 

libros quos pater suus reliquisset (Cic), books which [he said] his 
father had left. 

c. The Reflexive may refer to any noun in the same clause, on 
which emphasis is thrown, so that it becomes in a manner the 
subject of discourse : as, 

Socratem cives sui interfecerunt, Socrates was put to death by his own 
fellow -citizens. [Here the emphasis is preserved in English by 
the change of voice.} 

d. The Reflexive may follow a verbal noun or adjective : as, 

conservatio sui, self-preservation. 
impotens sui (Q. C), unable to control one^s self. 

homines cum sui similibus servis (Phil. i. 2), men with slaves like 
themselves. 

e. The Reflexive refers to the subject implied in an infinitive or 
verbal abstract used indefinitely : as, 

bellum est sua vitia nosse (Cic), it is a fine thing to know one 's own 
faults. 

f. Inter se is regularly used to express reciprocal action : as, 

cohaerentia inter se, things consistent with each other. 

Possessive. 

197. The Possessive Pronouns are derivative adjec- 
tives, which take the gender, number, and case of the 
noun they are used with, not of the possessor : as, 

Caesar uxorem suam repudiavit, Ccesar put away his wife. 



than in English. Thus in the sentence "A replied to B that he thought C (his 
brother) more unjust to himself than to his own friend," the syntax is perfectly- 
simple and clear, but the meaning not ; he and his may refer to A, to B, or to 
some third person ; himself and his own to either A, B, or C. A part of the am- 
biguity would be removed, in Latin, by using se or eum, ejus, suus, or ipsius ; 
but a part would necessarily remain, and could not be removed by any rule of 
syntax, but only by the exercise of common sense in reference to the context. 



Pronouns : Possessive and Relative, 133 

a. Possessives are regularly used for the genitive of possession, 
and more rarely for the objective genitive (compare 190) : as, 

domus mea, my house. 

periculo invidiae meae (Cat. i. 2), at risk of odium against me. 

b. The possessives have often the acquired meaning of favora- 
ble ox propitious l towards the subject indicated : as, 

tempore tuo pugnasti ? did you fight at a fit time ? 

ignoranti quern portum petat nullus suus ventus est (Sen. Ep. 70), to 
him who knows not what port he is bound to, no wind is fair. 

c. The possessives are regularly omitted (like other pronouns) 

when they are plainly implied in the context : as, 

amicum gratulatur, he greets his friend [amicum suum would he dis- 
tinctive ; suum amicum would be emphatically "his own" friend]. 

d. Possessives are often used instead of nouns, implying some 
special relation : 2 as, 

nostri, our countrymen, or men of our party. 

suos continebat (B. C. i. 15), he held his men in check. 

e. A possessive in any case may have a genitive in apposition : 
as, 

mea solius causa, for my sake only. 

nostra omnium patria, the country of us all. 

suum ipsius regnum, his own kingdom. 

Relative. 

Note. — A Relative Pronoun is properly an Adjective, in agreement 
with some word either expressed in its own clause, or implied in the 
antecedent (demonstrative) clause. The full construction would re- 
quire the antecedent to be expressed in both clauses, with more com- 
monly a corresponding demonstrative to which the relative refers : as, 
erant omnino duo itinera quibus itineribus domo exire possent (B. G. 
i. 6). But one of these nouns is most commonly omitted. This word 
is, in Latin, very frequently found (rarely in English) in the relative 
clause, — sometimes in that alone. Hence relatives serve two uses : 
1. as Nouns in their own clause, 2. as Connectives ; and thus are often 
equivalent to a demonstrative and conjunction combined. The connective 
force is not original, but is developed from an interrogative or indefinite 
meaning specialized by use. The clauses were originally co-ordinate. 



1 This use is not strictly idiomatic, but is a natural development of meaning, 
and may often be rendered literally. 

2 There is no reason to suppose an ellipsis here ; but the adjective becomes a 
noun like other adjectives (see 188). 



134 Syntax : Pronouns. 

Thus, Qui quietus animo est, is est sapiens : " Who (some one) is undis- 
turbed in soul ? That [man] is a sage." This form of relative has in 
Latin supplanted other forms which were demonstrative in their origin, 
as in Liber quern dedisti : " The book — you gave it." 

198. A Relative agrees with its Antecedent in Gen- 
der and Number; but its Case depends on the con- 
struction of the clause in which it stands : as, 

puer qui venit, the, boy who came. 
liber quern legis, the book you are reading. 
via qua ambulat, the way he walks in. 
This rule applies to all relative words so far as they are 
variable in form : as, qualis, quantus, quicumque. 

199. A relative generally agrees in gender with a noun 
(appositive or predicate) in its own clause, rather than 
with an antecedent of different gender: as, 

mare etiam quern Neptunum esse dicebas (N. D. iii. 20), the sea, too, 
which you said was Neptune. 

a. A relative may (rarely) by attraction agree with its ante- 
cedent in Case : as, 

si aiiquid agas eorum quorum consuesti (Fam. v. 14), if you should do 
somethi7ig of what you are used to. 

b. A relative may agree in gender and number with an implied 
antecedent : as, 

quartum genus . . . qui aere vetere alieno vacillant (Cat. ii. 10), a 

fourth class, that are staggering under old debts. 
unus ex eo numero qui parati erant (Jug. 35), one of the number [of 

those] who were ready. 
conjuravere pauci . . . de qua [conjuratione] dicam (Sail. C. 18), a few 

have co?tspired . . . of which [conspiracy] / will speak. 

200. The antecedent noun sometimes appears in both 
clauses ; usually only in the one that precedes ; some- 
times it is wholly omitted. Thus — 

a. The noun may be repeated in the relative clause : as, 

loci natura erat haec quern locum nostri delegerant (B. G. ii. 18), the 
nature of the ground which our men had chosen was this. 

b. The noun may appear only in the relative clause : as, 

quas res in consulatu nostro gessimus attigit hie versibus (Arch. 11), 
he has touched in verse the things which we did in our consulship. 

urbem quam statuo vestra est (./En. i. 573), yours is the city which I 
found. 



Pronouns : Relative. 



135 



Note. — In the latter case, a demonstrative (is, ille or hie) 
usually stands in the antecedent clause : x as, 

quae pars civitatis calamitatem populo Romano intulerat, ea princeps 
poenas persolvit (B. G. i. 12), that part of the State which had 
brought disaster on the Roman people was the first to pay the 
penalty. 

c. The antecedent noun may be entirely omitted, especially an 
indefinite one : as, 

qui decimae legionis aquilam ferebat (B. G. iv. 25), [the man] who 

bore the eagle of the teitth legion. 
qui cognoscerent misit (id. i. 21), he sent [men] to reconnoitre. 

d. A predicate adjective (especially a superlative) agreeing with 
the antecedent may stand in the relative clause : as, 

vasa ea quae pulcherrima apud eum viderat (Verr. iv. 27), those most 
beautiful vessels which he had seen at his house (nearly equal to the 
vessels of which he had seen some very beaitfiful ones). 

e. The phrase id quod or quae res is used (instead of quod 
alone) to relate to an idea or group of words before expressed : 

[obtrectatum est] Gabinio dicam anne Pompeio ? an utrique — id 
quod est verius ? (Manil. 19), an affront is offered shall I say to 
Gabinius or Pompey ? or — which is truer — to both ? 

201. In the use of relatives, the following points are 
to be observed : — 

a. The relative is never omitted in Latin, as it often is in 
English : as, 

liber quern milii dedisti, the book you gave me. 

is sum qui semper fui, / am the same man I always was. 

eo in loco est de quo tibi locutus sum, he is in the place I told you of. 

b. A relative clause in Latin often takes the place of other con- 
structions in English, particularly of a participle, appositive, or 
noun of agency: as, 

leges quae nunc sunt, the existing laws. 

Caesar qui Galliam vicit, Ccesar the conqueror of Gaul. 

justa gloria quae est fructus virtutis, true glory the fruit of virtue. 

c. In formal or emphatic discourse, the relative clause usually 
comes first, often containing the antecedent noun : as, 

quae mala cum multis patimur ea nobis leviora videntur, the evils 
we suffer [in common] with many seem to us lighter. 

1 In a sentence of this class, the relative clause in Latin usually stands first ; 
but, in translating, the noun should generally (except with an indefinite relative) 
be transferred in its proper case to the antecedent clause, as in the example above 
quoted. 



136 Syntax: Pronouns. 

d. When the antecedent noun is in apposition with the main 
clause, or some word of it, it is put in the relative clause : as, 

firmi amici, cujus generis est magna penuria, steadfast friends, a class 
of which there is great lack. 

e. A relative often stands with a relative adverb or an interroga- 
tive at the beginning of a sentence or clause, where in English a 
demonstrative must be used : as, 

quae cum ita sint, and since these things are so. 

quorum quod simile factum ? (Cat. iv. 8), what deed of theirs like this? 

f. The relative Adverb is regularly used in referring to a Loca- 
tive : as, 

mortuus Cumis quo se contulerat (Liv. ii. 21), having died at Cumce, 
whither he had retired [here in quam urbem might be used, but not 
in quas\. 

g. The relative words qui, qualis, quantus, &c., are often ren- 
dered simply by as ' in English : as, 

idem quod semper, the same as always. 

talis dux qualem Hannibalem novimus, such a chief as we know Han- 
nibal [to have been]. 

h. The general construction of relatives is found in clauses 
introduced by relative or temporal adverbs : as, ubi, quo, unde, 
cum. 

[For the use of the Relative in idiomatic clauses of Result 

(est qui, dignus qui, quam qui, etc.), see 320. a, c, f.~\ 

[For the use of Interrogatives, see 210]. 

Indefinite. 

202. The Indefinite Pronouns are used to indicate that 
some person or thing is meant, without indicating what 
one. 

N. B. For the significations of the compounds of qui and quis, 
see 105 (pp. 55, 56). 

a. Of the particular indefinites quis, quispiam, nescio quis, 
aliquis, quidam (meaning some or any), quis is least definite, 
and quidam the most : as, 

dixerit quis (quispiam), some one may say. 



1 Compare 106. b. The word as in this use is strictly a relative, though in- 
variable in form. 






Pronouns: Indefinite. 137 

aliqui philosophi ita putant, some philosophers think so [quidam would 

mean certain particular persons defined to the speaker's mind 

though not named], 
habitant hie quaedam mulieres pauperculae, some poor women live 

here [i.e. some women he knows of ; some women or other would 

be aliquae or nescio quae] . 

b. In a particular negative, aliquis is regularly used, when in 
a general negative quisquam or ullus would be required : as, 

sine aliquo metu, [you cannot do this] without some fear. 
sine ullo metu, [you may do this] without any fear. 

c. Of the general indefinites, qui vis or quilibet (any you will) 
is used chiefly in affirmative, quisquam and ullus {any at all) 
in negative, interrogative, or conditional clauses : as, 

quidlibet modo aliquid (Cic), any thing you will, provided it be some- 
thing. 

cuivis potest accidere quod cuiquam potest, what can happen to any 
[one] man can happen to any man [whatever]. 

cur cuiquam misi prius, why did I send to any body before [you] ? 

minus habeo virium quam vestrum utervis, / have less strength than 
either of you (for the form utervis, see 83). 

non cuivis homini contingit adire Corinthum, it is not every maris 
luck to go to Corinth [non cuiquam, not any maris\ . 

Note. — The use of these indefinites is very various, and must be 
learned from the Lexicon or from practice. The choice among them 
often depends merely on the point of view of the speaker, and they are 
often practically interchangeable. The differences are (with few excep- 
tions) those of logic, not of syntax. 

d. The Distributive quisque (every), uterque (eac/i), or unus 
quisque {every single one), used in general assertions, is equivalent 
to a plural, and sometimes has a plural verb : as, 

bonus liber melior est quisque quo major, the larger a good book is, 
the better. 

ambo exercitus suas quisque abeunt domos, both armies go away 

every man to his home. 
uterque utrique erat exercitus in conspectu, each army was in sight 

of the other. 

e. Quisque is regularly placed in a dependent clause if there is 
one : as, 

quo quisque est sollertior, hoc docet iracundius (Rose. Com. ii.), the 

keener-witted a man is, the 7nore i?npatiently he teaches. 

f. Nemo is often used as a pronoun, occasionally even with a 
noun in agreement : as, vir nemo bonus (Leg. ii. 16). 



138 Syntax : Verbs. 

203. The expressions alter . . . alter, alius . . . alius, 
may be used reciprocally : as, 

hi fratres alter alterum amant, these brothers lave each other. 

a. Alius is simply another; alter is the other (of two) or the 
second ; x ceteri, all the rest or others. 

b. Alius and alter are often used to express one as well as the 
other of the objects referred to : 2 as, 

alter consilium, one of the [two] consuls. 

aliud est maledicere, aliud accusare (Cic), it is one thing to slander, 
another to accuse. 

c. Alius with another case of the same word expresses shortly 
a double statement : as, 

alius aliud petit, one man seeks one thing, one another. 

alius alia via civitatem auxerunt (Liv. i. 21), they enlarged the State 
each in his own way. 

VERBS. 

204. A Verb agrees with its subject-nominative in 
Number and Person : as, 

ego statuo, I resolve. 

oratio est habita, the plea was spoken. 

a. A Verb having a Relative as its subject takes the person of 
the expressed or implied Antecedent : as, 

adsum qui feci (JEn. ix. 427), here am I who did it. 

b. The verb sometimes agrees in number, and in a periphrastic 
form in gender, with a predicate noun or one in apposition : as, 

non omnis error stultitia est dicenda (Parad. vi. 3), not every error 
should be called folly. [So Athenae patria mea est, not sunt.] 

Corinthus lumen Graeciae exstinctum est, Corinth the light of Greece 
is put out. 

205. Two or more singular subjects take a verb in 
the plural ; also, rarely, when one is in the ablative with 
cum (compare 186. d) : as, 

pater et avus mortui sunt, his father and grandfather are dead. 
dux cum aliquot principibus capiuntur (Liv. xxi. 60), the general and 
several chiefs are taken. 



1 Compare in English every other day for every second day. 

2 Either one may be " the other " according to the way you look at them. 



The Verb and its Subject, 139 

a. When the subjects are of different persons, the verb will be 

in the first rather than the second, and in the second rather than 

the third : as, 

si tu et Tullia valetis ego et Cicero valemus (Fam. xiv. 5), if you and 
Tullia are well, Cicero and I are well. [Notice that the first person 
is also first in order, not last, as by courtesy in English.] 

b. If the subjects are joined by disjunctives, or if they are con- 
sidered as a single whole, the verb is singular : as, 

neque fides neque jusjurandum neque ilium misericordia repressit 
(Ter. Ad.), not faith, nor oath, nay, nor mercy, checked him. 

Senatus populusque Romanus intellegit (Fam. v. 8), the Roman Senate 
and people understand. [Here the phrase Senatus, &c, is the official 
designation of the government.] 

c. A collective noun may take a plural verb : as, 
pars praedas agebant (Jug. 32), a part brought in booty. 

Remark. — Quisque is very often used in apposition with a plural 
subject, and perhaps in all cases where it has a plural verb should be so 
considered : as, 

suum quisque habeat quod suum est (Plaut. Cure), let every one keep 
his own [properly, let them keep every man his own]. 

d. When the action of the verb belongs to the subjects sepa- 
rately, it may agree with one and be understood with the others: as, 

intercedit M. Antonius et Cassius tribuni plebis (B. C. i. 2), Anthony 
and Cassius, tribunes of the people, interpose. 

206. The Subject of the verb, and sometimes the verb, 
is omitted in certain cases. 

a. The Personal Pronoun, as subject, is usually omitted unless 
emphatic: thus, 

loquor, I speak ; ego loquor, it is I that speak. 

b. An indefinite subject is often omitted. This is usually a 
plural subject, as in dicunt, ferunt, perhibent (they say) ; but 
sometimes singular, as inquit (Tusc. i. 39), referring to a class of 
reasoners just spoken of. 

c. The Verb is often omitted in certain phrases : as, 
quorsum haec [spectant] ? what does this ai7n at? 

ex ungue leonem [cognosces], you will know a liojt by his claw. 
quid multa ? what need of many words ? 
quid ? quod, what of this, that, &c. 

The indicative and infinitive of esse are most frequently omitted ; 
often also, dico and facio. 



140 Syntax : Particles. 



PARTICLES. 
1.— Adverbs. 

207. Adverbs are used to modify Verbs, Adjectives, 
and other Adverbs. 

Note. — The proper function of Adverbs as petrified (obsolete) case- 
forms is to modify Verbs ; and so their name denotes. They also 
modify Adjectives, as showing the manner or degree of the exercise or 
manifestation of the quality described. More rarely they modify other 
Adverbs, because they are themselves case-forms of adjectives, and 
kindred with them. Very rarely, in poetry, adverbs are also used with 
Nouns containing a verbal idea, or with those containing an adjective 
idea, as in the phrase tua semper lenitas. Many adverbs, especially 
relative adverbs, serve as connectives, and are hardly to be distinguished 
from conjunctions (see 25. /). 

a. A Demonstrative or Relative Adverb is often equivalent to 
the corresponding Pronoun with a Preposition (see 201. f) : as, 

eo ( = in ea) imponit vasa (Jug. 75), upon them [the beasts] he puts 

the camp-utensils. 
apud eos quo (= ad quos) se contulit (Verr. iv. 18), among those to 

whom he resorted. 
qui eum necasset unde ipse natus esset (R. Am. 26), i.e. one who 

should have killed his own father. 

b. The adverbs propius, proxime (like the adjectives propior^ 
proximus), pridie, postridie, are sometimes followed by the Accusa- 
tive without any preposition ; palam, procul, st7nul, by the Abla- 
tive : as, 

quam proxime hostem (Att. vi. 5), as near the enemy as I can. 
postridie ludos (id. xvi. 4), the day after the games. 
palam populo (Liv.), in presence of the people. 

Remark. — Pridie and postridie are also used with the genitive ; clam 
may take either accusative, ablative, or (rarely) the dative. 

c. Many perfect participles used as nouns regularly retain the 
adverb which modified them as participles : as, 

praeclare factum, a glorious deed (a thing gloriously done). 

2. — Conjunctions. 

208. Copulative and disjunctive Conjunctions connect 
similar constructions, and are regularly followed by the 
same case or mood as that preceding. 



Conjunctions ; Negative Particles. 141 

a. Conjunctions of comparison (as ut, quam, tanquam) also 
connect similar cases or moods : as, 

perge ut instituisti (Rep. ii. 11), go on as you have begun. 

his igitur quam physicis potius credendum existimas (Div. ii. 26) ? 

do you think these are more to be trusted than the scientists ? 
hominem callidiorem vidi neminem quam Phormionem (Ter.), a 

shrewder man I never saw than Phormio (compare 247). 

b. Two or more words are often joined without conjunctions : 1 
as, omnes di, homines ; summi, medii, infimij liberie servi. If 
a conjunction is used where there are more than two words or 
phrases, it is commonly used with all except the first : as, su?nma 
fide et constantid et justitid. 

c. Two adjectives belonging to the same noun are regularly 
connected by a conjunction : as, 

multae et graves causae, many weighty reasons. 

d. Many words properly adverbs may be used correlatively, 
and lose their adverbial force and become conjunctions : as, 
cum {turn) . . turn, modo . . modo, simul . . simul, qua . . qua, 
nunc . . nunc (see 107, p. 57). 

e. Conjunctions are often doubled, for the sake of emphasis or 
to bind a sentence more closely to the preceding : as, at vero, 
itaque ergo, nam-que, et-enim. 

f. Several conjunctions serve to introduce subordinate clauses 
requiring a change of Mood (see Chap. V.). 

3. — Negative Particles. 

[For the Negative Particles, see 149. e, p. 99.] 
209. In the use of the Negative Particles, the follow- 
ing points are to be observed : — 

a. Two negatives are equivalent to an affirmative, as in English. 
But a general negation is not destroyed — 

1. By a following ne . . quidem or non modo; 

2. By succeeding negatives each introducing a separate sub- 
ordinate member ; 

3. By neque introducing another co-ordinate member. 

b. The negative is regularly joined to the connective, and some- 
times to other words ; so that the form of the negative in Latin 
differs from that in English in such phrases as — 



1 The omission of conjunctions is called Asyndeton. 



142 Syntax: Questio?is. 

neque (nee), and . . not, birt . . not. 

nee quisquam, and no one, 

nulli or neutri credo, I do not believe any or either [of them]. 

nego haec esse vera [not dico haec non esse vera), I say this is not true. 

nihil unquam audivi jucundius, I never heard anything jollier. 

c. A statement is often made emphatic by denying its contrary x 
(compare nonnullus, nonni7no, etc., 150. a). 

d. The particle immo, nay, is used to contradict some part of 
the statement or question, or its form ; in the latter case, the same 
statement is often repeated in a stronger form, so that immo 
becomes nearly equivalent to yes {nay but, nay rather). 

e. With si, if, and quo, in order that, minus becomes equiva- 
lent to not; so minime often has the meaning not at all. 

[For do not in Prohibitions, see 269. a.] 

QUESTIONS. 

210. Questions in Latin are introduced by special 
Interrogative words, and are not distinguished by the 
order of words, as in English. 

[For the Interrogative Particles, see page 99. d.~\ 

a. A question of simple fact, requiring the answer yes or no, 
is formed in Latin by adding the syllable -ne (enclitic) to the 
emphatic word : as, 

tune id veritus es (Cic.) ? did you fear that? 

b. Sometimes the interrogative particle is omitted, when no 
sign of a question appears except in the punctuation : as, 

patere tua consilia non sentis (Cat. i. 1) ? do you not see that your schemes 
are manifest ? 

c. When the syllable -ne is added to a negative word, — as 
nonne, — an affirmative answer is expected. The particle num 
implies a negative answer : as, 

nonne animadvertis (N. D. iii. 35), do you not observe? 
num dubium est (R. Am. 37), there is no doubt, is there ? 

d. The particle -ne added to the verb often has the force of 
nonne, and implies an affirmative answer (rarely elsewhere) : as, 

meministine me in Senatu dicere (Cat. i. 3) ? don't you remember my 
saying in the Senate ? 



1 This form of expression is called Litotes. 



Interrogative Forms ; Double Questions. 143 

Remark. — The enclitic -ne is sometimes added to other interroga- 
tive particles : as, utrumne, a7tne, nonne, 

e. A question concerning so7?te special circumstance is formed 

by prefixing to the sentence an Interrogative Pronoun or Adverb 

(see List, p. 57) : as, 

quid est quod jam amplius exspectes (Cat. i. 3) ? what is there for you 
to look for any more ? 

Remark. — A question of this form becomes an exclamation by 
omitting the mark of interrogation, or (in speech) by changing the 
inflection of the voice : as, qualis vir erat ! quot calamitates passi sumus I 
ut, how, is used in Indirect questions ; and in old Latin also in Direct : 
as, ut valet? how is she? (Plaut.). 

f. The particles nam (enclitic) and tandem are added to these 
interrogatives for the sake of emphasis : as, 

quisnam est ? (or quis tandem est ? which would be stronger), pray 

zuho is it? 
ubinam gentium sumus (Cat. i. 4), where in the world are we? 

Remark. — The form of Indirect Questions (in English introduced 
by whether \ or by an interrogative pronoun or adverb) is the same as 
that of direct ; the difference being only in the verb, which regularly 
takes the Subjunctive. In indirect questions num loses its peculiar 
force. The phrases nescio quis, mirum quam, and the like, are Indefinites 
in meaning, and do not require the subjunctive. The expressions nescio 
an, dubito an, and the like, incline to the Affirmative : I almost think. 

Double Questions. 

211. In Double or Alternative Questions, utrum or 
-ne, whether, stands in the first member ; an, anne, or ; 
annon, necne, or not, in the second : as, 

utrum nescis, an pro nihilo id putas (Fam. x. 26), is it that you don't 
know ? or do you thi}ik nothing of it ? 

quaero servosne an liberos (Rose. Am. 27), / ask whether slaves or 
free. 

Remark. — In direct questions, annon is more frequently found 
in the alternative ; in indirect, necne. 

a. The interrogative particle is often omitted in the first mem- 
ber ; when -ne (anne, necne) may stand in the second : as, 

Gabinio dicam anne Pompeio (Manil. 19), shall I say to Gabinius or to 

Pompey ? 
sunt haec tua verba necne (Tusc. iii. 18), are these your words or not? 



144 Syntax: Questions. 

b. Sometimes the former member is omitted or implied ; and 
an (anne) alone asks a question, — usually with indignation or 
surprise: as, 

an tu miseros putas illos (Tusc. i. 7), what I do you think those men 

wretched ? 

c. When utrum asks a question to which there is no alternative, 
the second member may be omitted : as, 

utrum in clarissimis est civibus is quern . . . (Flacc. 16), is he 
a?nong the noblest citizens, whom, <5rv. 

d. The following exhibits the various forms of alternative 
questions : — 

utrum ... an 

... an (anne) 

-ne . « . an 

. . . -ne 

Question and Answer. 

212. As there is no one word in Latin meaning simply 
yes or no, in answering a question the verb is generally 
repeated : as, 

valetne, is he well? valet, yes [he is well), 

eratne tecum, was he with you ? non erat, no {he was not). 

a. An intensive or negative particle is sometimes used in answer 
to a direct question : thus vero {in truth), or etiam {even so) 
may have the meaning of yes j and non (not), or minime (least- 
of -all), no, by no jneans. 

The particles thus used are, — for Yes : etiam, ita, faction, 
vero, sane ; ita vero, ita est, sane quide7n; for No : non, mini?ne, 
minime vero, non quidem, non hercle vero. 

b. In the answer to an alternative question, one member of the 
alternative must be repeated : as, 

tune an f rater erat, was it you or your brother? 
ego [eram], it was I. 

Remark. — From alternative questions must be distinguished 
those in which some part of the question only is alternative, not the 
question itself. These have the common distinctive particles, aut 
or vel (-ve). 



Construction of Cases. 145 



Chapter II. — Construction of Cases. 

Note. — The Cases of nouns express their relations to other words 
in the sentence. Originally the family of languages to which Latin 
belongs had at least seven cases, besides the Vocative, all expressing 
different relations. Of these the Locative and Instrumental cases were 
lost, and their functions divided among the others. 

The Nominative, Accusative, and Vocative (so far as this can be 
called a case) without doubt express the oldest forms of case-relation 
{Direct Cases: 31. N.). The Nominative, when it differs in form from 
the Accusative, usually indicates the relation of Subject by the pro- 
nominal suffix s (p. 14. n. 2.); the Vocative, when it differs from the 
nominative, perhaps never had any suffix. The Accusative, most 
frequently formed by the suffix m, originally connected the noun 
loosely with the verb-idea, whether expressed by a verb or otherwise : 
compare the use of Stems in composition, as armiger with ar?na gerere ; 
fidicen with fidibus canere ; hanc tangere with hanc tactio (Plaut.). The 
various uses of the accusative were specialized from this vague relation. 

The other cases were formed by combination with various pro- 
nominal suffixes for more special uses, at first probably expressing rela- 
tions of place or direction (to, from, at, with : Indirect Cases). The 
original meanings of these cases have become confused with each other, 
so that in many instances they are no longer distinguishable either in 
form or meaning. Thus the Locative was for the most part lost in 
Latin from its confusion with the Dative and Ablative ; and its func- 
tion was performed in many instances by the Ablative, which is freely 
used to express the place where. To indicate relations of place more 
precisely, Prepositions (originally Adverbs) gradually became necessary. 
These by degrees rendered the case-endings useless, and so have finally 
superseded them in all modern languages derived from Latin. But in 
Latin a very large and various body of relations was still expressed by 
cases ; though in many expressions forms with or without a preposition 
occur, showing the transition state : compare nitor with or without in> 
and the ablative of separation with or without ab or ex. 

The names of the oblique cases, except the Ablative, are of Greek 
origin. The name Genitive — Gr. yeviK-f} [tttoxtis], from yivos — refers, 
originally, to the class to which anything belongs. The Dative — Botikt] 
— is the case of giving. The name Accusative is a mistranslation of 
airiariK'f], signifying that which is effected ox caused (atria). The original 
name for Nominative (naming) was opOri, signifying erect ; for Vocative, 
K\r}Tiicf} (calling). The name Ablative means taking from. 

10 



146 Syntax: Genitive. 

GENITIVE. 

Note. — The Genitive is the regular case to express the rela- 
tion of one noun to another ; and hence is sometimes called the 
adjective case, to distinguish it from the Dative and Ablative, 
which may be called adverbial cases (compare Remark under 217). 
Its uses may be classified as follows : — 

1. of Possession. 

1. Subjective: 1 2. of Source or Material. 

k 3. of Quality (with Adjectives). 

2. Partitive : of the Whole, after words designating a Part. 

1. with Nouns of action and feeling. 

r> ™;*u Aj; A# ,^ nA0 ( Relative adjective or Verbal. 

3. Objective: i 2. with Adjectives | for Specification (later use). 

1 with Verbs i of Memor y> Feeling (primary object). 
. ° (of Accusing, &c. (secondary object). 

I. — WITH NOUNS. 

213. A noun used to limit or define another, and not 
meaning the same thing, is put in the genitive. This 
relation is most frequently expressed in English by the 
preposition of : as, 1 

libri Ciceronis, the books of Cicero. 

talentum auri, a talent of gold. 

vir summae virtutis, a man of the greatest courage. 

pars militum, a part of the soldiers. 

cultus deorum, worship of the gods. 

vacatio laboris, a respite of toil. 

victor omnium gentium, conqueror of all nations. 

Remark. — The phrase amor patris, love of a father, may 
mean love felt by a father (subjective genitive), or love towards 
a father (objective genitive). For the former the adjective patrius 
would be commonly used : compare a father's love and love of a 
father. 

Subjective Genitive. 

214. The Genitive is used with a noun to denote the 
Author, Owner, Source, Material, and (modified by 
adjectives) Measure or Quality. 



1 The genitive seems originally to have meant that from which something 
springs (origin or source) ; hence, that to which it belongs. From this significa- 
tion most of the others may be deduced. 



Subjective Genitive. 147 

a. For the genitive of Possession a possessive adjective is I § 50 
often used, — regularly for that of the personal pronouns (190) : as, 

liber meus, my book. 

aliena pericula, other men's dangers. 

Sullana tempora, the times of Sylla. 

b. The noun limited is understood in a few expressions : as, 

Castoris [aedes], the [temple] of Castor. 

Hectoris Andromache, Hector's [wife] Andromache. 

c. The genitive is often in the Predicate, connected with its 
noun by a copulative verb : as, 

haec domus est patris mei, this house is my father's. 
tutelae nostrae [eos] duximus (Liv.), we held them [to be] in our pro- 
tection. 
lucri facere, to get the benefit of. 

jam me Pompeii totum esse scis (Fam. ii. 13), you know I am now all 
for Pompey. 

Remark. — These genitives bear the same relation to those in 213 
that the noun in predicate agreement bears to the appositive (185). 

d. An infinitive or a clause, used as a noun, is often limited by 
the genitive of adjectives or nouns, or takes a possessive in 
agreement : as, 

neque sui judicii [erat] decernere (B. C. i. 35), it was not for his 

judgment to decide. 

cujusvis hominis est errare (Cic), it is any man's [liability] to err. 
mentiri non est meum, it is not for me to lie. 
humanum [for hominis] est errare, it is man's nature to err. 
negavit moris esse Graecorum, ut in convivio virorum accumberent 
mulieres (Verr. ii. 28), he said it was not the custom of the Greeks 
for women to recline [as guests] at the banquets of men. 
"timidi est optare necem (Ov. M. iv. 15), it is for the coward to wish for 
death. 

Remark. — The genitive of an adjective (especially of "the 
third declension) is thus used to express the same general idea 
as the neuter nominative : as, 

stulti erat sperare, suadere impudentis (Phil. ii. 10), it was [would 

have been) folly to hope, effrontery to urge. 
sapientis [not sapiens] est pauca loqui, it is wise [the part of a wise 

man] to say little. 

e. A genitive may denote the Substance or Material of which 
a thing consists (compare 216, 244) : as, 

talentum auri, a talent of gold. 
flumina lactis, rivers of milk. 



148 Syntax: The Genitive. 

f. A limiting genitive is sometimes used instead of a noun in 
apposition : as, 

nomen insaniae, the word madness. 
oppidum Antiochiae, the city of Antioch. 

g. The genitive is often used with the ablatives causa, gratia, 
for the sake ofj ergo, because of; and the indeclinable ins tar, 
like; also with pridie, the day before; postridie, the day after; 
tenus, as far as. 

Genitive of Quality. 

215. The genitive is used to denote Quality, but only 
when the quality is modified by an adjective (usually an 
indefinite one) : as, 

vir summae virtutis, a man of the highest courage. 

magnae est deliberationis, it is an affair of great deliberation. 

magni formica laboris, the ant, [a creature] of great toil. 

Note. — Compare Ablative of Quality (p. 174). In expressions of 
Quality, the genitive and ablative may often be used indifferently : as, 
praestanti prudentia virum, maximi animi hominem (Cic.). But, in 
general the genitive is thus used rather of essential, the ablative of 
special or i7icidental characteristics or conditions. 

a. The genitive of quality is found in the adjective phrases ejus 
modi, cujus modi (equivalent to talis, such, qualis, of what sort). 

b. The genitive (of quality), with numerals, is used to define 
measures of length, depth, &c. : as, 

fossa trium pedum, a trench of three feet [depth], 
murus sedecim pedum, a wall sixteen feet [high]. 

c. Certain genitives of Quantity — as 7nagni, fiarvi, nih'ili, 
pluris, minoris — are used to express indefinite Value (see Ab- 
lative of Price, 252). 

Partitive Genitive, 

216. Words denoting a Part are followed by the 
genitive of the Whole to which the part belongs. 

a. Partitive words, followed by the genitive, are — 

1. Nouns or Pronouns : as, 

pars militum, part of the soldiers. 

quis nostrum, which of us? (compare e, below). 

nihil erat reliqui, there was nothing left. 



Partitive Genitive. 149 

2. Numerals, Comparatives, and Superlatives : as, 
alter consilium, one of the [two] consuls. 

unus tribunorum, one of the tribunes. 

plurimum totius Galliae equitatu valet (B. G. v. 4), is strongest 
in cavalry of all Gaul. 

3. Neuter adjectives and pronouns used as nouns : as, 

tantum spatii, so much space. 

aliquid nummorum, a few pence. 

id loci [or locorum), that spot of ground. 

id temporis, at that time. 

plana urbis, the level parts of the town. 

quid novi ? what news ? 

Remark.— Of adjectives of the third declension the genitive is 
rarely used in this way. Thus — 

nihil novi (gen.), nothing new ; but 

nihil memorabile (nom.), nothing worth mention. 

4. Adverbs, especially of Quantity and Place : as, 

satis pecuniae, money enough. 

parum otii, not much ease. 

inde loci, next in order. 

turn temporis, at that point of time. 

eo miseriarum (Sail.), to that pitch of misery. 

b. The poets and later writers often use the partitive genitive 
after adjectives, instead of a noun in its proper case : as, 

sequimur te sancte deorum (JEn. iv. 578), we follow thee, O holy 

deity. 
nigrae lanarum (Plin. H. N. viii. 48), black wools. 
electi juvenum (Liv. xxx. 9), chosen youths. 
cunctos hominum (Ov.), all men (but compare e). 

c. Cardinal numbers regularly — also quidam more commonly, 
and other words rarely — take the ablative with e (ex) or de, 
instead of the genitive : as, 

unus ex tribunis, one of the tribunes. 

minumus ex illis (Jug. 11), the youngest of them. •< 

medius ex tribus (ib.), the midst of the three. 

d. With nouns uterque generally agrees as an adjective ; but 
with pronouns it always takes a genitive : as, 

uterque consul, both the consuls. 
uterque nostrum, both of us. 



§50 
3.b 



3. c 



Rem. 



2.d 



2. e 



Rem. 



Rem. 



150 Syntax: The Genitive. 

e. Numbers and words of quantity including the whole of any 
thing, or when no others are thought of, take a case in agreement, 
and not the partitive genitive : as, 

nos omnes, all of tis. 

quot sunt hostes, how many of the enemy are there? [many. 

cave inimicos qui multi sunt, beware of your enemies of whom you have 

multi milites, many of the soldiers. 

nemo Romanus, not one Roman. 

Objective Genitive. 

217. Nouns of Action, Agency, and Feeling, govern 
the genitive of the object : 1 as, 

desiderium otii, longing for rest. 

vacatio muneris, relief fro7n duty. 

gratia beneficii, gratitude for kindness. 

fuga malorum, refuge from disaster. 

laudator temporis acti, a praiser of the past. 

precatio deorum, prayer to the gods. 

dolor capitis, pain in the head. 

contentio honorum, struggle for office. 

opinio virtutis, reputation for valor. 

Remark. — One noun limiting another is regularly used in the geni- 
tive, and not with a preposition, — prepositions being originally adverbs, 
and requiring a verb. Sometimes, however, one noun has another con- 
nected with it by a preposition. This happens with nouns of action, 
feeling, and motion ; and in some relations of place to or in which ox from 
which (including origin), acco?npaniment, &c. (compare 227. d) : as, 

odium in Caesarem (or odium Caesaris), hate of Gzsar. 

merita erga me (Cic), services to me. 

auxilium adversus inimicos (id.), help against enemies. 

reditus in caelum (id.), return to heaven. 

impetus in me (id), attack on me. 

excessus e vita (id.), departitre from life. 

a. Occasionally possessive adjectives are used for the genitive 
of the Object : as, 

externus timor, dread of the stranger (see 197. a). 

b. The objective genitive is rarely used with a noun limited by 

another genitive : as, 

animi multarum rerum percursio (Tusc. iv. 13), the mind's traversing 
of many things. 



1 This is an extension of the idea of belonging to ; as in the phrase odium 
Caesaris, hate of Ccesar, the hate in a passive sense belongs to Caesar, though 
in its active sense he is the object of it. 



Genitive with Adjectives, 151 

II.-WITH ADJECTIVES. 

218. Adjectives requiring an object of reference (ad- 
jectiva relative!) govern the genitive. 

a. Adjectives denoting Desire, Knowledge, Memory, Fulness, 
Power, Sharing, Guilt, and their opposites, are followed by the 
genitive : as, 

avidus laudis, greedy of praise. 

fastidiosus literarum, disdaining letters. 

juris (jure) peritus, skilled in law. 

sui oblitus, forgetful of himself. 

rationis et orationis expertes (Off. i. 16), devoid of reason and speech. 

b. Verbals in ax ; also Participles in ns when used to denote a 
disposition and not a particular act, so that they become adjectives, 
take the genitive : as, 

justum et tenacem propositi virum (Hor. Od. iii. 3), a man just and 
steadfast to his purpose. 

si quem tui amantiorem cognovisti (Q. Fr. ix. 1), if you have become 
acquainted with any one more fond of you. 

multitudo insolens belli (B. C. ii. 36), a crowd unused to war. 

sitiens sanguinis, thirsting for blood. But, 

Tiberius sitiens sanguinem (Tac.), Tiberius [then] thirsting for blood. 

Remark. — With the accusative, participles in ns are participles 
" referring to an act ; " with a genitive, they are adjectives " referring to 
the fact." 

c. Some other adjectives of quality or agency often take the 
genitive ; and the poets and late writers use almost any adjective 
with a genitive of specification : as, 

callidus rei militaris (Tac. H. ii. 31), skilled in soldiership. 
pauper aquarum (Hor.), scant of water. 
notus animi, famed for spirit. 
fessi rerum (Virg.), weary of toil. 

integer vitae scelerisque purus (Hor.), upright in life, and pure of guilt. 
Remark. — Animi (strictly a locative, plural animis) is added 
to adjectives of feeling : as, 

aeger animi, sick at heart. 
confusus animi, disturbed in spirit. 

d. A few adjectives of Likeness, Nearness, Belonging — ordi- 
narily requiring the dative — take the possessive genitive, especially 
when used as nouns ; these are, aequalis, affinis, communis, finiti- 
mus, par, propinquus , proprius (regularly), similis, vicinus. 



§50 



4. a 



152 Syntax: The Genitive. 

III. — WITH VERBS. 
Verbs of Memory, 

219. Verbs of Remembering, Forgetting, and Re- 
minding, take the genitive of the object when they are 
used of a continued state of mind, but the accusative 
when used of a single act : as, 

pueritiae memoriam recordari (Arch.), to recall the memory of childhood. 
animus meminit praeteritorum (Div. i. 30), the soul remembers the past. 
venit mihi in mentem illius diei, / bethought me of that day. 
obliviscere caedis-atque incendiorum (Cat. i. 3), tur7i your mind from 
slaughter and conflagrations. 

totam causam oblitus est (Brut. 60), he forgot the whole case. 

Remark. — The above distinction is unimportant as to verbs of Re- 
minding, which take the genitive except of neuter pronouns : as, hoc te 
admoneo. The accusative is always used of a person or thing remem- 
bered by an eye-witness. Recordor is almost always construed with an 
Accusative, or with a phrase or clause. 

Charge and Penalty. 

220. Verbs of Accusing, Condemning, and Acquit- 
ting, take the genitive of the charge or penalty : as, 

arguit me furti, he accuses me of theft. 

peculates damnatus (pecuniae publicae damnatus) (Flac. 18), con- 
demned for embezzlement. 

video non te absolutum esse improbitatis sed illos damnatos esse 
caedis (Verr. ii. 28), / see not that you were acquitted of outrage, 
but that they were condemned for homicide. 

a. Peculiar genitives, under this construction, are — 

capitis (damnare capitis, to se7ttence to death) ; 

majestatis [laesae], treason (crime against the dignity of the State) ; 

repetundarum, extortion (lit. of an action for claiming back money 

wrongfully taken) ; 
voti (damnatus or reus voti, bound to the payment of one's vow ; i.e. 

successful in one's effort). 

b. The crime may be expressed by the ablative with de ; the 
punishment by the ablative alone : * as, 

de vi et majestatis damnati (Phil, i), convicted of assault and treason. 

vitia autem hominum atque fraudes damnis, ignominiis, vinculis, ver- 
beribus, exsiliis, morte damnantur (De Or. i. 43), but the vices and 
crimes of men are punished with fines, dishonor, chains, scourgi?ig, 
exile, death. 



But, inter sicarios accusare or defendere. 



Genitive with Verbs. 



153 



Verbs of Feeling:. 

22L Many verbs of Emotion take the genitive of the 
object which excites the feeling. Thus — 

a. Verbs of Pity, as misereor and miseresco, are followed by 
the genitive : as, 

miserescite regis (JEn. viii. 573),/*'/? the king, 

miserere animi non digna ferentis (id. ii. 144), pity a soul that endures 
unzvorthy things. 

But miseror, commiseror, bewail, take the Accusative. 

b. The impersonals miseret, paenitet, piget, pudet, taedet (or 
pertaesum est), take the genitive of the object with the accusative 
of the person affected : as, 

hos homines infamiae suae neque pudet neque taedet (Verr. i. 12), 
these men are 7ieither ashamed nor weary of their dishonor. 

c. An Infinitive, a Clause, or an accusative of a neuter pronoun 
may be used with these impersonal verbs instead of the genitive 
of a noun : as, 

me paenitet haec fecisse, I repent of having done this. 

nihil quod paenitere possit (Cic), nothing that may cause repentance. 

d. Sometimes they are used personally : as, 

nonne te haec pudent (Ter. Ad.), do not these things shame you? 

222. The impersonals interest and refert take the geni- 
tive of the person (rarely the thing) affected, — the sub- 
ject of the verb being a neuter pronoun or a substantive 
clause : as, 

Clodii intererat Milonem perire (Mil. 21), // was the interest of Clodius 
that Milo should die. 

Remark. — The use of the genitive with interest is probably to be 
referred to its predicate use (214. d). 

a. Instead of the genitive of a personal pronoun the correspond- 
ing possessive is used in the ablative singular feminine after in- 
terest or refert : 1 as, 

quid tua id refert? — magni (Ter. Ph.), how does that concern you? 
much. 

vehementer intererat vestra qui patres estis (Plin.), it would be very 
much to your advantage, you who are fathers. 



1 Refert is seldom used in any other way ; but it takes rarely the dative (of 
Reference), as in Hor. Sat. i. 1, 49 : quid referat intra naturae fines viventi. 



154 Syntax: The Dative. 

b. The accusative with ad is used to express the Thing with 
reference to which one is interested : as, 

magni ad honorem nostrum interest (Fam. xvi. i), it is of great con- 
sequence to our honor. 

223. Some verbs of Plenty and Want govern the 
genitive (rarely, except egeo, indigeo, satago) : as, 

quid est quod defensionis indigeat ? (Rose. Am. 12), what is there that 
needs defence ? 

satagit rerum suarum, he has his hands fell with his own affairs. 

a. The genitive sometimes follows potior, get possession of; 
as aiways in the phrase potiri rerum, to be master of affairs. 

b. Verbs of plenty and want more commonly take the Ablative 
(see 243, 248. c). 

DATIVE. 

224. The Dative is used of the object indirectly affected 
by an action. This object is usually denoted in English 
by to or for : as, 

dat librum puero, he gives a book to the boy. 

cedite tempori, yield to the occasion. 

provincia Ciceroni obtigit, the province fell by lot to Cicero. 

inimicis non credimus, we do not trust [to] our ene7nies. 

civitatis saluti consulite, consult for the safety of the State. 

sic mini videtur, so it seems to me. 

utile rei publicae, useful to the State. 

naturae contrarium, opposite to nature. 

Note. — The dative seems to have the primary meaning of towards, 
and to be closely akin to the Locative. But this meaning is lost in 
Latin, except in some adverbial forms (eo, illo, &c.) and in the poets. 
In most of its derived meanings, it denotes an object not merely (like 
the Accusative) 2& passively affectedby the action, or caused by it ; but as 
reciprocally sharing in the action, or receiving it actively. Thus, in dedit 
mihi librum, he gave me a book, or fecit mihi injuriam, he did me an 
injury ; it is I that receive the book or feel the wrong. Hence persons, 
or objects personified, are most likely to be in the dative. 1 

As this difference between the accusative and dative (direct and indi- 
rect object) depends on the view taken by the writer, verbs of similar 



1 So in the Spanish, the dative is used whenever a Person is the object of an 
action : as, yo veo al hombre, / see the man. 



Dative with Transitives. 



155 



meaning in different languages, or even in the same, differ in the case of 
the object. In English, especially, owing to the loss of its cases, many 
verbs are construed as transitive, which in Latin require the dative. 
Thus believe, which in English originally governed the genitive, has be- 
come transitive ; while the corresponding verb in Latin, credo (a com- 
pound of cred and do, to place confidence in) takes the dative. 




The uses of the Dative are the following : — 

a. with Transitives. 

b. with Intransitives. 



As Indirect Object (general use) : < 



2. Special or Idiomatic Uses : 



C a. of Possession (with esse). 
J b. of Agency (with Gerund). 
] c. of Service (predicate use). 

d. of Fitness, &c. (with Adjectives). 
\ e. of Reference (dativus commodi). 



With Transitives. 

225. The Dative of the Indirect object may be used 
with any transitive verb whose meaning permits it, 
along with the accusative of the Direct : as, 

do tibi librum, I give you a book. 
illud tibi affirmo (Fam. i 7), this I assure you. 

commendo tibi ejus omnia negotia (Fam. i. 1), I put all his affairs in 
your hands. 

dabis profecto misericordiae quod iracundiae negavisti (id. 14), you 
will surely grant to mercy what you refused to wrath. 

a. Many verbs may be either transitive or intransitive, and 
have the accusative with the dative, or the dative alone : as, 

hanc pecuniam tibi credo, I trust this money to you. 
in hac re tibi credo, / trust you in this affair. 

b. When the idea of motion is distinctly conveyed, a preposition 
with its case is used, but the dative occurs in poetry : as, 

has litteras ad te mitto, / send you this letter. 

it clamor caelo (JEn. v. 451), a shout goes to the sky. 

c. Many verbs usually found with a dative of the person may 
also take an accusative of the thing (see 227) : as, 

cui cum rex crucem minitaretur (Tusc. i. 43), when the king threat- 
ened him with the cross. 

imperat oppidanis decern talenta, he exacts of the townspeople ten 
talents. 

omnia sibi ignoscere (Veil. ii. 30), to pardon one's self every thing. 

Crasso divitias non invideo, I do not envy Crassus his wealth. 



156 Syntax: The Dative, 

d. Certain verbs capable of two different senses * may take 
either the dative of a person and the accusative of a thing, or the 
accusative of a person and the ablative of a thing : as, 

donat coronas suis, he presents wreaths to his men ; or, 

donat suos coronis, he presents his men with wreaths. 

pomis se induit arbos (G. iv. 143), the tree decks itself with fruits. 

copiis (dat.) armis exutis (B. G. hi. 6), the forces bei7tg stripped of 
arms. 

aram sanguine adspergere (N. D. in. 36), to spri?ikle the altar with 
blood. 

e. Verbs which in the active voice take the accusative and 
dative retain the dative when used in the passive : as, 

haec nobis nuntiantur, these things are told us. 

Crasso divitiae non invidentur, Crassus is not envied for his wealth. 
decern talenta oppidanis imperantur, ten talents are exacted of the 
townspeople. 

With Intransitives. 

226. Intransitive verbs take the dative of the Indirect 
object only : as, 

cedant arma togae (Phil. i. 8), let arms give place to the gown, 

Caesari respondet, he replies to Ccesar. 

Caesari respondetur, Ccesar is replied to (see 230). 

credimus nuntio, we believe the messenger. 

nuntio creditur, the messenger is believed. 

respondi maximis criminibus (Phil i. 14), I have answered the heaviest 

charges. 
ut ita cuique eveniat (id. 46), that it may so turn out to each. 

a. The dative is used as the object of reference of many phrases 
consisting of a noun with a copulative verb (compare 235) : as, 

auctor esse alicui, to advise or instigate one. 

quis huic rei testis est (Quinc. u), who testifies to this fact? 

is finis populationibus fuit (Liv. ii. 30), this put an end to the raids. 

b. The dative is sometimes used without a copulative verb in a 
sense approaching the genitive (compare 227. d, 235. a) : as, 

legatus Caesari, a lieutenant to Ccesar (i.e., a man sent as a lieutenant 

to Caesar), 
heres fratri suo, his brother's heir. 
ministri sceleribus, agents of cri?ne. 



1 These are dono, impertio, indico, exuo, adspergo, inspergo, circumdo y cir- 
cumfundo, prohibeo, intercludo, interdico (dat. with ace. or abl. ). 



Dative with Intransitives. 



157 



227. Most verbs signifying to favor , help, please, trust, 
and their contraries ; also, to believe, persuade, command, 
obey, serve, resist, envy, threaten, pardon, and spare} take 
the Dative : as, 

cur mihi invides, why do you envy me ? 

mihi parcit atque ignoscit, he spares and pardons me, 

ignosce patrio dolori (Liv. iii. 48), pity a father's grief. 

sontibus opitulari poteram (Fam. iv. 13), I was able to help the guilty. 

non omnibus servio (id. xvi. 13), I am not a servant to every man. 

cum ceteris turn mihi ipsi displiceo (id. iv. 13), I dissatisfy other people 

and myself too. 
non parcam operae (id. xvi. .13), I will spare no pains. 
sic mihi persuasi (Cat. M. 21), so I have persuaded ?ny self 
huic legioni Caesar confidebat maxime (B. G. i. 40), this legion Caesar 

especially trusted. 

Note. — Several classes of verbs in this list (as to favor, envy, 
serve, &c.) seem to be transitive. In fact, however, the Latin retains a 
primary- meaning which is not found in the English : as, invidere, to 
envy, is to look [askance] at one ; servire, is to be a slave ; suadere, is to 
make [a thing] pleasant to any one (compare suavis, sweet). 

a. Some verbs apparently of the same meanings — as, juvo, 
adjuvo, help, laedo, injure; jubeo, order; deficio, fail — take 
the accusative, indicating a more direct relation or effect. Thus — 
multa oculis nocent, many thmgs are injurious to the eyes ; but, 
hie pulvis oculum meum laedit, this dust hurts my eye. 

b. Some verbs take the dative or accusative indifferently : as, 

adulor, aemidor, co7nitor, despero, praestolor, medeor, medicor. 

c. Some verbs take the dative or accusative according to their 

signification : 2 as, 

parti civium consulunt (Off. i. 25), they consult for a party of the 
citizens. 

cum te consuluissem (Fam. xi. 29), when I had consulted you. 

metuens pueris (Plaut. Am. v. 1), anxious for the boys. 

nee metuunt deos (Ter. Hec. v. 2), they fear not even the gods [so also 
timeo] . 

prospicite patriae (Cat. iv. 2), have regard for the State. 
prospicere sedem senectuti (Liv. iv. 49), to provide a habitation for old 
age [so also provider e\. 

1 These include, among others, the following : adversor, credo, faveo, fido, 
ignosco, impero, invideo, irascor, suscenseo, resisto, noceo, parco, pareo, placeo, 
servio, studeo, suadeo {persuadeo), tempero (o5tempero). 

2 See Lexicon under convenio, cupio, fido (abl.), insisto, maneo, praeverto, 
recipio, renuntio, solvo, succedo. 



158 Syntax : The Dative. 

d. Some verbal nouns — as insidiae, ambush, invidia, envy — 
take the dative like the verbs whence they are derived : as, 

invidia consuli (Sail.), ill-will against the consul. 
obtemperatio legibus (Leg. i. 15), obedience to the laws. 
sibi ipsi responsio (De Or. iii. 54), an answer to himself. 

e. The dative is used after the Impersonals libet, licet; after 
verbs compounded with satis, bene, and male j together with the 
following : gratificor, gratulor, haereo (rarely), nubo, permitto, 
plaudo, probo, studeo, supplico, excello : as, 

optimo viro maledicere (Dej. 10), to slander an excellent man. 

quod mihi maxime lubet (Fam. i. 18), what most pleases me (see 12. c). 

mihi ipsi nunquam satisfacio (id. 17), I never satisfy myself 

pulcrum est benefacere rei publicae (Sail. C. 3), it is a noble thing to 

benefit the commonwealth. 
haerentem capiti coronam (Hor. S. i. 10), a wreath clinging to the head. 
Pompeio se gratificari putant (id. i. 1), they suppose they are doing 

Pompey a service. 
tibi permitto respondere (N. D. iii. 1), I give you leave to answer. 

With Compounds. 

228. Most verbs compounded with ad, ante, con, in, 
inter, ob, post, prae, pro, sub, super, and some with circum, 
are followed by the dative of Indirect Object : * as, 

neque enim adsentior iis (Lael. 2>)>f or I do not agree with them. 
tempestati obsequi artis est (Fam. i. 9), /'/ is a point of skill to yield to 

the weather. 
omnibus negotiis non interfuit solum sed praefuit (id. i. 6), he not 

only had a hand in all matters, but took the lead in them. 
quantum natura hominis pecudibus antecedit (Off. i. 30), so far as 

maris nature is superior to brutes. 
nee unquam succumbet inimicis (Dej. 13), he will never bend before 

his foes. 
illis libellis nomen suum inscribunt (Arch. 13), they put their own 

name to those papers. 
cur mihi te offers, ac meis commodis ofneis et obstas (Ros. Am. 38), 

why do you offer yourself to me, and then hinder and withstand my 

advantage ? 

Remark. — When a verb with z preposition in English is represented 
by one of these compounds, it is commonly followed by the Dative, as 
in the above examples. If, however, the compound represents a verb 
qualified by an adverb, it retains its original construction : as, convocat 
sicos (see also 237. d). 



1 Many take also the Accusative, being originally transitive. 



Dative with Compottuds. 159 

a. Some compounds of ad, ante, ob, with a few others, acquire 
a transitive meaning, and take the accusative : 1 as, 

nos oppugnat (Fam. i. i), he opposes us. 

quis audeat bene comitatum aggredi, who would dare encounter a man 

well attended ? 
munus obire (Lael. 2), to attend to a duty. 

b. The adjective obvius — also the adverb obviam — with a verb 
takes the dative : as, 

si ille obvius ei futurus non erat (Mil. 18), if he was not intending to 

get in his way. 
mihi obviam venisti (Fam. ii. 16), you came to meet me. 

229. Many compounds of ab> de, ex, also adimo y take 
the dative (especially of persons) instead of the ablative 
of separation : 2 as, 

mulieri anulum detraxit, he took a ring from the woman. 

bona mihi abstulisti, you have robbed me of my gains. 

vitam adulescentibus vis aufert (C. M. 19), violence deprives young men 

of life. 
nihil enim tibi detraxit senectus (id. 1), for age has robbed you of 

nothing. 
nee mihi hunc errorem extorqueri volo (id. 23), nor do 1 wish this 

error wrested from me. 

a. The distinct idea of place, — and, in general, names of 
things, — require the ablative with a preposition: as, 

ilium ex periculo eripuit (B. G. iv. 12), he dragged him out of danger. 

b. Sometimes the dative of a person and the ablative with a 
preposition are used in the same construction : as, 

victoriam eripi sibi e manibus, that victory should be wrested from his 
hands (compare 243. b). 

c. The dative is often used by the poets in constructions which 
would strictly require another case with a preposition : as, 

differt sermoni (Hor. S. i. 4, 48), differs from prose [a sermone]. 
tibi certet (Eel. v. 8), may vie with you [tecum]. 

lateri abdidit ensem (JEn. ii. 553), buried the sword in his side [in latere], 
solstitium pecori defendite (Eel. vii. 47), keep the noontide from the 
flock [a pecore]. 

Here the poets regard the action as done to the thing affected, 
for greater vividness of expression. 

1 Such verbs are aggredio?', adeo, antecedo, anteeo, antegredior, convenio, 
ineo, obeo. offendo, oppugno, subeo. 

2 The action is here more vividly represented as done to the object affected by it. 



160 Syntax: The Dative. 

230. Verbs governing the dative can be used in the 
Passive only impersonally : as, 

cui parci potuit (Liv. xxi. 12), who could be spared? 

non modo non invidetur illi aetati verum etiam favetur (Off. ii. 13), 

that age [youth] is not only not envied, but is even favored. 
tempori serviendum est (Fam. ix. 7), we must serve the time. 

Dative of Possession. 

231. The dative is used with esse and similar words 
to denote possession or other special relation : as, 

homini cum deo similitudo est (Cic), man has a likeness to God* 
quibus opes nullae sunt (Sail.), [those] who have no wealth. 
est mihi domi pater (Virg.), I have a father at home. 
Remark. — The Genitive or a possessive with esse emphasizes 
the possessor ; the Dative, the fact of possession : as, liber est 
meus, the book is mine (and no one's else) ; est mihi liber, / 
have a book (among other things). This is the usual form to 
denote simple possession j habeo, I have, generally signifying hold, 
often with some secondary meaning : as, 

legionem quam secum habebat (B. G. i. 8), the legion which he kept 

with him. 
domitas habere libidines (De Or.), to keep the passions under control. 

a. Compounds of esse take the dative (excepting abesse and 

posse) : as, 

deest mihi pecunia, I lack money. 

b. After nomen est, and similar expressions, the name is usually 
put in the dative by a kind of apposition with the person : as, 

puero ab inopia Egerio inditum nomen (Liv. i. 34), the boy was called 

Egerius from his poverty. 
cui Africano fuit cognomen (id. xxv. 2), whose surname was Africanus. 

c. The name may be in apposition with nomen ; or in the 
genitive : as, 

cui nomen Arethusa (Verr. iv. 52), [a fount] called Arethusa. 
nomen Mercuri est mihi (Plaut. Am.), my name is Mercury. 
puero nomen est Marcus (Marco, Marci), the boy's name is Marcus. 

Dative of Agency. 

232. The dative is used with the Gerundive, to denote 
the person on whom the necessity rests : as, 

haec vobis provincia est defendenda (Man. 6), this province is for you 

to defend [to be defended by you], 
mihi est pugnandum, I have to fight [i.e., the need of fighting is mine ; 

compare mihi est liber]. 



Dative of Service. 161 

a. The dative of the agent is often used after perfect participles, 
especially when used in an adjective sense, — rarely after other 
parts of the verb : as, 

mihi deliberatum et constitutum est (Rull. i. 8), I have deliberated and 
resolved. 

b. By the poets and later writers it is used in this way after 
almost any passive verb : as, 

neque cernitur ulli (JEn. i. 440), nor is seen by any. 

felix est dicta sorori (Fast. iii. ), she was called happy by her sister. 

c. The dative of the person who sees or thinks is regularly used 
after the passive of video (usually to be rendered seem) : as, 

videtur mihi, it seems (or seems good) to me. 

Dative of Service. 

233. The dative is used to denote the Purpose or 
End: often with another dative of the person or thing 
affected : 1 as, 

rei publicae cladi sunt (Jug. 85), they are ruin to the State. 

magno usui nostris fuit (B. G. iv. 25), it was of great service to our 

men. 
tertiam aciem nostris subsidio misit (id.), he sent the third line as a 

relief to our men. 
omnia deerant quae ad reficiendas naves erant usui (id. 29), all things 

were wanting which were of use for repairing the ships. 

Dative with Adjectives. 

234. The dative is used after Adjectives or Adverbs, 
to denote that to which the given quality is directed, or 
for which it exists. 



1 The following characteristics have been observed in the use of the Predicate 
Dative (dative of Service) : 1. the noun is semi-abstract ; 2. it is so used only in the 
singular; 3. it is "used predicatively " ; 4. generally with esse ; 5. rarely qualified 
by an adjective ; 6. or by a genitive or a phrase ; 7. but few nouns are used in this 
way ; 8. the use and its limitations appear to be governed by custom, not by any 
principle. It is common with about 40 nouns, and is found with 185 in all. Of 
these dono, muneri, vitio, are not used with esse. The verbs with which it exists 
are habeo, do, dico, duco, pono, verto, with esse and its equivalents, as fieri, &c. 
The nouns most commonly found in this construction are, adjumento, auxilio, cordi, 
crimini, curae, da7nno, decori, dedecori, dono, exemplo, exitio, fraudi (damage), 
honori, indicio, invidiae, impedimento, laudi, ludibrio^ malo, morae, odio, oneri, 
ornamento, praedae, praesidio, probro, pudori, receptui, remedio, saluti, subsi- 
dio, terrori, vitio, voluptati, usui. — Roby's Latin Grammar, ii. xxxvii. seq. 



1 62 Syntax : The Dative. 

a. The dative is used with words of Fitness, Nearness Like- 
ness, Service, Inclination, and their opposites ; also, in poetic and 
colloquial use, with idem : as, 

nihil est tarn naturae aptum (Lael. 5), nothing is so fitted to nature. 
nihil difficile amanti puto (Or. 10), I think nothing hard to a lover. 
pompae quam pugnae aptius (id. 13), fitter for a procession than for 

battle. 
rebus ipsis par et aequalis oratio (id. 36), a speech equal and level with 

the subject. 
in eadem arma nobis (Cic), to the sa?ne arms with us, 

b. Adjectives of Fitness or Use take oftener the accusative 
with ad to denote the end ; but regularly the dative of persons : as, 

nobis utile est ad hanc rem, it is of use to us for this thing. 
aptus ad rem rmlitzxzm, fit for a soldiers duty. 
locus ad insidias aptior (Mil. 20), a place fitter for lying in wait. 
castris idoneum locum deligit (B. G. vi. 10), he selects a suitable camp- 
ing-ground. 

c. Adjectives and nouns of Inclination may take the accusative 
with in or erga : as, 

comis in uxorem (Hor. Ep. ii. 2), kind to his wife. 
divina bonitas erga homines (N. D. ii. 23), the divine goodness towards 
men. 

d. Many adjectives especially when used as nouns may take also 
the possessive genitive. 1 

Remark. — After similis, like, with early writers, the genitive 
is more usual ; Cicero uses the genitive of living objects, and the 
genitive or dative of things. 

e. The adjectives propior, proximus (sometimes), and the ad- 
verbs propius, proxiine (more commonly), take the accusative, as if 
prepositions, like prope (see 91). 

Dative of Reference. 

235. The dative is often required not by any particular 
word, but by the general meaning of the sentence 
(dativus commodi et incommodi) : as, 

tibi aras (PI. Merc. i. \), you plough for yourself . 
res tuas tibi habe (formula of divorce), keep your goods to yourself . 
laudavit mihi fratrem, he praised my brother [out of regard for me ; 
laudavit fratrem meum would imply no such motive]. 



1 Such are aequalis, affinis, amicus, cognatus, communis, co?isanguineus, 
dispar, familiaris, inimicus, necessarius, par, peculiaris, proprius, similis, super- 
stes (compare 188, 218. d). 



Dative of Reference. 163 

Remark. — In these cases there may be only one word in the sen- 
tence ; but they are distinguished by the fact that the meaning of the 
verb is complete without the dative, — which denotes that to or for 
which any thing is done, — while in the preceding uses it is more closely 
connected with some particular word. 

a. The dative of reference is often used to qualify a whole idea, 
instead of the possessive genitive modifying a single word : as, 

iter Poenis vel corporibus suis obstruere (Cat. M. 20), to block the 
march of the Carthaginians even with their own bodies. 

se in conspectum nautis dedit (Verr. vi. 53), he ptit himself in sight of 
the sailors. 

versatur mihi ante oculos (id. 47,) it comes before my eyes. 

b. The dative of reference is used, in relations of Direction 
answering to the English as you go in (on the right, in the front, 
&c.) : as, 

oppidum primum Thessaliae venientibus ab Epiro (B. C. iii. 80), the 

first town of Thessaly as you co7ne from Epirus. 
laeva parte sinum intrantibus (Liv. xxxvi. 26), on the left as you sail 

up the gulf. 

c. The dative of reference is used, rarely (by a Greek idiom), 
with the participle of volo or nolo, and similar words : as, 

ut quibusque bellum invitis aut volentibus erat (Tac. Ann. i. 59), as 

each might receive the war reluctantly or gladly. 

ut militibus labos volentibus esset (Jug. 100), that the soldiers might 
assume the task willingly. 

Ethical Dative. 

236. The dative of the personal pronouns is used to 
show a certain interest felt by the person referred to 1 
{dativus ethicus) : as, 

quid mihi Celsus agit (Hor.), pray what is Celsus doing? 
suo sibi servit patri (PL Capt. ProL), he serves his own father . 
at tibi repentevenit mihi Cominius (Fam.ix. 2), but, look you, of a sud- 
den co?nes to me Cominius. 

hem tibi talentum argenti (PL Trin. v. 1), hark ye, a talent of silver. 
quid tibi vis ? what would you have ? 

Remark. — To express for — meaning instead of in defence 
of in behalf of — the ablative with pro must be used : as, 
pro patria mori (Hor. Od. iii. 2), to die for one's country. 
pro rege, lege, grege (prov.),/<?r king, law, people. 
ego ibo pro te (PL Most.), I will go instead of you. 

1 Compare " I'll rhyme you so eight years together." — As You Like It. 



164 Syntax: The Accusative. 

ACCUSATIVE. 

237. The Accusative is the case of the Direct Object 
of a transitive verb. It denotes {a) that which is directly 
affected, or (b) that which is caused or produced by the 
action of the verb : as, 

Brutus Caesarem interfecit, Brutus killed Ccesar. 
aedem facere, to make a temple. 
proelium pugnare, to fight a battle. 
The special uses of the Accusative are the following : — 
a. Directly affected by the Action. 



Idiomatic Uses : 



1. Primary Object : \ ^ m f h Action ( Thing produced 

( Cognate Accusative. 

f a. Predicate Accusative (of Naming, &c). 

2. Secondary Object :<J b. of Asking or Teaching (the Thing). 

L c. of Concealing (the Person). 

a. Adverbial. 

b. of Specification (Greek Accusative). 

c. of Extent and Duration. 

d. of Exclamation. 

e. Subject of Infinitive (Indirect Discourse). 

a. The object of a transitive verb in the active voice becomes 
its Subject in the passive, and is put in the nominative : as, 

Caesar a Bruto interfectus est, Ccesar was killed by Brutus. 
domus aedificatur, the house is building [being built). 

b. Many verbs which express Feeling, apparently intransitive, 
take an accusative in Latin and are used in the passive : as, 

meum casum luctumque doluerunt (Sest. 69), they grieved [at] my 

calamity and sorrow. 
ridetur ab omni conventu (Hor. S. i. 7, 22), he is laughed [at] by the 

whole assembly. 

c. Verbs of taste, smell, and the like take an accusative of the 
quality : as, 

vinum redolens (Cic), smelli7ig of wine. 

herbam mella sapiunt (Plin.), the honey tastes of grass. 

d. Verbs of motion, compounds of circum and trans, and a few 
others, frequently become transitive, and take the accusative : as, 

mortem obire, to die. 

consulatum ineunt (Livy iii. 4), they assume the considship. 
neminem conveni (Fam. ix. 14), I met no one. 
si insulam adisset (B. G. iv. 20), if he should go to the island. 
cives qui circumstant senatum (Cat. i. 8), the citizens who throng about 
the senate. 



Cognate Accusative ; Two Accusatives. 165 



e. The accusative is used after the Impersonate decet, delectat, 
jtivat, oportet, fallit, fugit, praeterit : as , 

te non praeterit (Fam. i. 8), it has not escaped your notice. 
[For Accusative and Genitive after Impersonate, see 221. £.] 
Cognate Accusative. 

238. A neuter verb often takes an accusative of kin- 
dred meaning, usually modified by an adjective or in 
some other manner: as, 

vitam tutiorem vivere (Hor.), to live a safer life. 
aetatem tertiam vivebat, he was living his third age. 
coire societatem, to [go together and] form an alliance. 

a. The cognate accusative is found in such phrases as vincere 
judicium, to gain one's case at court, and more loosely in poetic 
use : as, 

saltare Cyclopa (Hor. Sat. v. 1), to dance the Cyclops. 
Bacchanalia vivere (Juv. ii. 2), to live in revels. 

b. The accusative is used in certain phrases constructively, the 
real object of the verb being something understood (constructio 
praegnans) : as, 

huic errori similem [errorem] insanire (Hor. S. ii. 3, 62), to be mad with 

a like deliLsion. 
ferire foedus, to strike a treaty [i.e. to sanction by striking down the 
victim]. 

Two Accusatives. 

239. Several classes of verbs, besides the direct ob- 
ject, take another accusative, either as a predicate or as 
a secondary object. 

a. The accusative is used in a predicate after verbs of Naming, 
Choosing, &c. (see examples under 185). 

b. A second accusative is sometimes used after transitive verbs 
compounded with prepositions : as, 

Hiberum copias trajecit (Liv. xxi. 23), he threw his forces across the Ebro. 
But with these verbs the preposition is oftener repeated. 

c. Verbs of Asking and Teaching govern two accusatives, 1 one 
of a Person and the other of a Thing : as, 

hoc V03 doceo (Cic), I teach you this. 

hoc te vehementer rogo (id.), this I urgently beg of you. 



1 Either of these may be regarded as the direct object of the action, and may 
accordingly be changed to the nominative as subject of the verb in the Passive. 



1 66 Syntax: The Accusative. 

Remark. — The accusative of the Thing may remain with the pas- 
sive of verbs of teaching, also after rogo : as, sententiam rogatus est. 
But generally with verbs of asking, the Thing becomes subject-nomina- 
tive, while the Person asked is put in the ablative with a preposition. 

The preposition is always used with the noun designating the person 
after peto, postulo (ab), or quaero (ex or de) : as, 

pacem ab Romanis petere (Caes.), to beg peace of the Romans. 

d. The transitive celo, conceal, and the usually neuter lateo, 
lie hid, take the accusative of the person : as, 

hoc me celavit, he hid this from me. 

latet plerosque (Plin.), it is hid from most. 

Idiomatic Uses. 

240. The Accusative has the following special idio- 
matic uses : — 

a. A neuter pronoun or adjective is used adverbially in the 
accusative : l as, 

quid moror, why do I delay ? 

dulce loquentem (Hor. Od. i. 22), sweetly speaking. 
acerba tuens (^En. ix. 793), looking cruelly . 
torvum clamat (id. vii. 599), he cries harshly. 

b. The accusative is found in a few adverbial phrases : as, 

id temporis, at that time. 
meam vicem, on my part. 
quod si, but (as to which) if 

c. The so-called synecdochical or Greek accusative is used by 
the poets to denote the ptrt affected : as, 

caput nectentur (Virg.), their head shall be bound [they shall be bound 
about the head]. 

Note. — The part is strictly in apposition with the whole, and re- 
mains (as in the example) after the passive. Many similar expressions 
may be regarded as the accusative after passive verbs used refiexively : as, 

inutile ferrum cingitur (Virg.), he girds on the useless steel. 

d. The accusative is used in Exclamations: as, 

O fortunatam rempublicam (Cic), O fortunate republic ! 
O me miserum ! Ah wretched me ! 

e. Duration of Time and extent of Space are expressed by the 
accusative (see 256, 257). 



1 This usage is strictly the Cognate Accusative. 



Vocative ; A blative. 



167 



/ The subject of the Infinitive Mood is in the accusative. 
This is especially frequent after words of Knowing, Thinking, 
Telling, and Perceiving {verba sentiendi et declarandi)} 

[For the Accusative with Prepositions, see page 101.] 

VOCATIVE. 

241. The Vocative is the form of direct Address : as, 

Tiberine pater, te sancte precor (Liv. ii. 103), O father Tiber ! 

thee, holy one, I pray. 
Note. — The Vocative can hardly be called a case, as it properly has 
no case termination, and forms no part of the sentence. 

a. Sometimes the nominative of a noun is used instead of the 
vocative, in apposition with the subject of the Imperative : as, 

audi tu, populus Albanus (Liv. i. 24), hear, thou people of Alba. 

b. Sometimes the vocative of an adjective is used instead of the 
nominative, where the verb is of the second person : as 

censorem trabeate salutas (Pers.), robed you salute the censor. 

c. The vocative is found in the phrase, 

macte= [magne, root mag] virtute esto (Hor.), bravo! well done ! 
[lit., be enlarged by manliness]. 

ABLATIVE. 

242. The Ablative is used to denote the relations ex- 
pressed in English by the prepositions from, in, at, 
with, by : as, 

liberare metu, to deliver from fear. 
caecus avaritia, blind with avarice. 
occisus gladio, slain by the sword. 
excultus doctrina, trai?ied in learning. 
hoc ipso tempore, at this very ti7ne. 

Note. — The Ablative form contains three distinct cases, — the 
Ablative proper, expressing the relation from ; the Locative, in ; and the 
Instrumental, with or by. This confusion has arisen partly from pho- 
netic decay, by which the cases have become identical in form, and 
partly from the development by which they have approached one 
another in meaning. Compare, for the first, the like forms of the dative 
and ablative plural, the old dative in e of the fifth declension, and the 

1 In its origin, the accusative in this construction is strictly the Object of the 
leading verb. 



i. Ablative [from) \ 



2. Instrumental (with) : 



1 68 Syntax : The Ablative. 

loss of the original d in the ablative ; and, for the second, the phrases 
a parte dextra, on the right ; quam ob causam, from which cause ; 
ad fainam, at (in consequence of) the report. 

The relation of from includes separation, source, cause, agent, and 
comparison ; that of with or by, accompaniment ', instrument, means, man- 
ner, quality, and price ; that of IN or AT, place, time, circumstance. It is 
probable that, originally, the idea of accompaniment, had a separate case, 
which became confounded with the Instrumental before Latin was 
separated from the kindred tongues. The following are the uses of the 
Latin Ablative, classed according to the original cases which have been 
combined in it : — 

a. of Separation, Privation, and Want. 

b. of Source (participles of origin, &c.) 

c. of Cause (gaudeo, dignus, &c.). 

d. of Agent (with alb after Passives). 

e. of Comparison (than). 

a. of Means and Instrument. 

b. of Accompaniment (with cum). 

c. of Object of the Deponents utor, &c. 

d. of Degree of Difference. 

e. of Quality (with Adjectives). 

f. of Price and Exchange. 

g. of Specification. 

1a. of Place where (commonly with in). 
b. of Idiomatic Expressions. 
c. of Time and Circumstance. 
d. Ablative Absolute. 

Ablative of Separation. 

243. Words signifying Separation or Privation are 
followed by the ablative, with or without a preposition. 

a. Verbs meaning to remove, set free, be absent, deprive, and 
want, require the ablative : as, 

oculis se privavit (Fin. v. 29), he deprived himself of eyes. 

legibus solutus, relieved from the obligation of laws. 

omni Gallia interdicit Romanos (B. G. i. 46), he [Ariovistus] bars the 
Romans from the whole of Gaul. 

ei aqua et igni interdicitur (Veil. Pat. ii. 45), he is debarred the use of 
fire and water. 

voluptatibus carere (Cat. M. 3), to lack enjoyments. 

non egeo medicina (Lael. 3), I want no physic. 

magno me metu liberabis (Cat. i. 5), you zvill relieve me of great fear. 

Ephorus calcaribus eget (Quint.), Ephorus needs the spur. 

levamur superstitione, liberamur mortis metu (Fin. i. 19), we are re- 
lieved fro?n superstition, freed from fear of death. 

consilio et auctoritate orbari (Cat. M. 6), to be bereft of counsel and 
authority. 



Ablative of Separation and Want. i6g 

b. Compounds of a, ab, de, ex, take the ablative when used 
figuratively j but in their literal meaning, implying motion, they 
usually require a preposition (compare 229) : as, 

conatu desistere (B. G. i. 8), to desist fro?n the attempt. 

desine communibus locis (Acad. ii. 25), quit commonplaces. 

abire magistratu, to leave one's office. 

abstinere injuria, to refrain from wrong. 

aberrare a proposito (Cic), to wander from the point. 

de provincia decedere (Verr. ii. 46), to withdraw from one 's province. 

ab jure abire (id.), to go outside of the law. 

ex civitate excessere (B. G. vi. 8), they departed from the State. 

finibus suis excesserant (id. iv. 18 j, they had left their own territory. 

c. The ablative without a preposition is used after verbs to 
denote the place from which in some idiomatic expressions : as, 

cessisset patria (Mil. 25), he would have left his country, 

patria pellere, to drive out of the couittry. 

manu mittere, to emancipate [let go from the hand]. 

d. Adjectives denoting Freedom and Want are followed by the 
ablative : as, 

urbs nuda praesidio (Att. vii. 13), the city naked of defence. 

immunis militia (Liv. i. 43), free of military service. 

plebs orba tribunis (Leg. iii. 3), the people depi'ived of tribunes. 

e. Opus and usus signifying Need are followed by the ablative ; 
often by the ablative of the perfect participle, with or without a 
noun : as, 

magistratibus opus est (Leg. iii. 2), there is need of magistrates. 
properato opus esset (Mil. 19), there were need of haste. 
Remark. — The nominative is often used, with opus in the 
predicate : as, 

dux nobis et auctor opus est (Fam. ii. 6), we need a chief and adviser. 
si quid ipsi opus esset (B. G. i. 34), if he wanted anything. 

f. Egeo and indigeo are often followed by the genitive (223) : as, 

ne quis auxilii egeat (B. G. vi. 11), lest any reqtiire aid. 

quae ad consolandum majoris ingenii et adferendum singularis virtutis 

indigent (Fam. vi. 4), [sorrows] which for comfort need more ability, 

aitd for endurance unusual courage. 

Remark. — With all words of separation and want, the poets 
frequently, by a Greek idiom, use the Genitive : as, 
abstineto irarum (Hor. Od. iii. 27), abstain from wrath. 
operum solutis (id. 17), free from toils. 



§54 
1. a 



170 Syntax : The Ablative. 

Source and Material. 

244. The ablative is used to denote the Source from 
which anything is derived, or the Material of which it 
consists (compare 214. e). 

a. Participles denoting Birth or Origin are followed by the 
ablative. Such are natus, satus, editus, genitus, ortus : as, 

Jove natus et Maia (N. D. iii. 22), son of Jupiter and Maia. 
edite regibus (Hor. Od. i. 1), descendant of kings. 
quo sanguine cretus (^En. ii. 74), born of what blood. 

Remark. — A preposition (ab, de, ex) is usually expressed 
with the name of the Mother, and with that of distant ancestors. 

b. Rarely, the place of Birth is expressed by the ablative : as, 

desideravit C. Felginatem Placentia, A. Granium Puteolis (B. C. iii. 
71), he lost C. F. of Placentia, A. G. of Puteoli. 

c. The ablative is used with constare 1 and similar verbs, to 
denote Material ; but with other verbs a preposition is generally 
used, except by the poets : as, 

animo constamus et corpore (Fin. iv. 8), we consist of soul and body. 

d. The ablative of Material is used with facere, fieri, and similar 
words in the sense of do with, become of: as, 

quid hoc homine facias (Verr. ii. 16), what are you going to do with 

this man ? 
quid Tulliola mea fiet (Fam. xiv. 4), what will become of my dear 

Tullia ? 
quid te futurum est (Verr. ii. 64), what will beco?ne of you ? 

Ablative of Cause. 

245. The ablative (with or without a preposition) is 
used to express the Cause. 2 

nimio gaudio paene desipiebam (Fam. i. 13), / was almost wild with 

excess of joy. 
negligentia plectimur (Lael. 22), we are chastised for negligence. 
gubernatoris ars utilitate non arte laudatur (Fam. i. 13), the pilot's 
skill is praised for its service, not its skill. 



1 The ablative with consistere and contineri is Locative in origin. 

2 The cause, in the Ablative, is considered as source, as is shown by the use of 
ab, de, ex ; but when the accusative with ad, ob is used, the idea of cause 
arises from neariiess. But occasionally it is difficult to distinguish between cause 
and means (which is instrumental) or circumstance (either locative or instru- 
mental). 



Ablative of Cause and Agent. 171 

a. The ablative is used with the adjectives dignus, indignus, 
and with the verbs dignor, labor o (also with ex), exsilio, exsulto, 
triumftho, lacrimo, ardeo. 

vir patre, avo, majoribus suis dignissimus (Phil. iii. 10), a man most 

worthy of his father, grandfather, and ancestors. 
doleo te aliis malis laborare (Fam. iv. 3), / am sorry that you suffer 

with other ills. 
ex aere alieno laborare (B. C. iii. 22), to labor under debt. 
exsultare laetitia ac triumphare gaudio coepit (Clu. 5), she began to 

exult in gladness, and triumph in joy. 

b. The motive which influences the mind of the person acting 
is expressed by the ablative alone ; the object exciting the emotion 
often by ob or propter with the accusative : as, 

non ob praedam aut spoliandi cupidine (Tac. H. i. 63), not for booty 
or through lust of plunder. 

c. The ablatives causa and gratia, for the sake of are used 
with a genitive preceding, or with a possessive in agreement : as, 

ea causa, on account of this ; mea causa, for my sake. 

et mea et reipublicae causa, for my own sake and the republics. 

sui purgandi gratia, for the sake of clearing themselves. 

With possessives the use of gratia in this sense is rare. 
Ablative of Agent. 

246. The voluntary agent after a passive verb is put 
in the ablative with ab : as, 

laudatur ab his, culpatur ab illis (Hor. Sat. i. 2), he is praised by these, 
blamed by those. 

ab animo tuo quidquid agitur id agitur a te (Tusc. i. 22), whatever is 
done by your soul is done by yourself. 

a. The ablative of the agent with ab is sometimes used after 
neuter verbs having a passive sense : as, 

perire ab hoste, to be slain by an enemy. 

b. The agent, considered as instrument or means, is expressed 
by per with the accusative, or by opera with a genitive or possess- 
ive. Thus — 

Caesar certior f actus est a legatis, Ccesar was informed [in person] by 
the ambassadors. 

Caesar certior factus est per legatos, Ccesar was informed by ambassa- 
dors [i.e. by means of ambassadors]. 

Caesar certior factus est Htteris, Ccesar was informed by letter [per lit- 
teras would mean by official documents used expressly as means of 
information]. 

So per vim, as well as vi (B. G. i. 14), by force. 



172 Syntax: The Ablative, 

Ablative of Comparison. 

247. The Comparative degree is followed by the abla- 
tive 1 (signifying than) : as, 

Cicerone eloquentior, more eloquent than Cicero. 

quid nobis duobus laboriosius est (Mil. 2), what more burdened with 
toil than we two ? 

a. Quam with the same case as the thing compared may also 
be used, and must regularly be used when the adjective is not 
either nominative or accusative (see 208. a). But the poets some- 
times use the ablative even then : as, 

pane egeo jam mellitis potiore placentis (Hor. Ep. i. 10), I want bread 
better than honey cakes. 

Remark. — Quam is never used in this construction with rela- 
tive pronouns having a definite antecedent. 

b. The idiomatic ablatives opinione, spe, solzto, dicto, aequo, 
credibili, and Justo, are used instead of a clause : as, 

celerius opinione (Fam. iv. 23), faster than one would think. 
amnis solito citatior (Liv. xxii. 19), a stream swifter than its wont. 

c. The comparatives plus, minus, amplius, longius, are often 
used with words of measure or number without affecting their 
case (being in a kind of apposition) : as, 

plus septingenti capti (Liv. xli. 12), more than 700 were taken. 
plus tertia parte interfecta (Caes.) more than a third part being slain. 
spatium non amplius sexcentorum pedum (id.), a space of not more 
than 600 feet. 

d. Alius is followed by the ablative in poetic and colloquial 
use : 2 as, 

nee quicquam aliud libertate communi (Fam. xi. 2), nothing else than 

the common liberty. 
alius Lysippo (Hor.), another than Lysippus. 

[For Ablative of Difference with Comparatives, see 250.] 



1 Here the object of comparison is the starting-point from which we reckon, as 
itself possessing the quality in some degree. That this is the true explanation is 

•shown by the ablative in Sanskrit, and the genitive in Greek. 

2 This is perhaps in imitation of the Greek ; but the construction is found also 
in Sanskrit, and is probably original : as, alium sapiente bonoque (Hor. Ep. 
i. 16). Under comparatives probably belong the adverbs ajitea, antidea, postilta, 
posted, praeterea, though these may be accusative neuter. 



Ablative of Means. 173 

Ablative of Means. 

248. The ablative is used to denote Accompaniment, 
Manner, Means, or Instrument : as, 

vultu Milonis perterritus (Mil. 15), scared by the face of Mil o. 
probabilia conjectura sequens (id. 9), following probabilities by co?t- 

jecture. 
Fauno immolare agna (Hor. Od. i. 4), to sacrifice to Faunus with a 

ewe lamb. 
pol pudere quam pigere praestat totidem litteris (Plaut. Trin. 345), 

by Pollux better shame tha?t blame, although the letters count the same 

[lit. with as many letters]. 

Remark. — The Ablative of Manner commonly takes cum, unless 
it has a modifying adjective. But words of manner, modo, ratione, via, 
etc., with certain expressions as silentio, injuria, — hardly ever have cum. 

a. The ablative of accompaniment regularly takes cum (except 
sometimes in military phrases, and a few isolated expressions, 
especially in the early writers) : as, 

cum funditoribus sagittariisque flumen transgressi (B. G. ii. 19), 

having crossed the river with the slingers aud archers. 
subsequebatur omnibus copiis (ib.), he followed close with all his forces. 
hoc praesidio profectus est (Verr. ii. 34), with this convoy he set out. 

Remark. — Misceo and jungo, with their compounds, may take the 
ablative of accompaniment, without cum, or sometimes the Dative : as, 
filetum cruori miscuit (Ov.), humano capiti cervicem equinam jungere (Hor.). 

6. Words of Contention require cum, but often take the dative 
in poetry : as, 

armis cum hoste certare (Cic), to fight with the enemy in arms, 
est mihi tecum certamen (id.), I have a controversy with you. 
solus tibi certat Amyntas (Eel. v. 8), Amyntas alone vies with you. 

c. The ablative of Means is used with words of Filling, 
Abounding, and the like : as, 

Deus bonis omnibus explevit mundum (Univ. 3), God has filled the 

world with all good things . 
opimus praeda (Verr. i. 50), rich with spoil. 
vita plena et conferta voluptatibus (Sest. 10), a life full and croiuded 

with delight. 
Forum Appi differtum nautis (Hor. Sat. i. 5), Forum Appii crammed 

with bargemen. 

Remark. — These verbs and adjectives take the genitive in the poets 
by a Greek idiom ; while compleo, impleo, and plenus often take the 
genitive in prose. 



174 Syntax : The Ablative. 

249. The deponents utor,fruor y fungor y potior, vescor, 
with several of their compounds, govern the ablative : as, 

utar vestra benignitate (Cic), I will avail myself of your kindness. 
Numidae plerumque lacte et ferina carne vescebantur (Jug. 88), 

the Numidians fed mostly on milk and game. 
sagacitate canum ad utilitatem nostram abutimur (N. D. ii. 6o), we 

take advantage of the sagacity of dogs for our own benefit. 

a. Potior also takes the genitive, as always in the phrase potiri 
rerum, to get the power. 

b. In early Latin, these verbs are often found as transitive, 
followed by the accusative. 

250. The ablative is used, with comparatives and 
words implying comparison, to denote the Degree of 
Difference : as, 

duobus millibus plures, 2000 7nore [more numerous by 2000). 
quinque millibus passuum distat (Liv.), it is five miles distant. 

Remark. — This use is especially frequent with the ablatives 
quo . . . eoj quanto . . . tanto (see 106. c) : as, 

quo minus cupiditatis eo plus auctoritatis (Liv. xxiv. 28), the less 
greed the more weight. 

N. B. — The ablative of Comparison and the ablative of Differ- 
ence, expressing different relations, may be used together with the 
same adjective : as, multo divitior Crasso, much richer than 
Crassus. 

Ablative of Quality. 

251. The Ablative, with an Adjective or limiting 
Genitive, is used to denote quality : l as, 

animo meliore, of better mind. 
more hominum, after the manner of men. 

non quaero quanta memoria fuisse dicatur, / do not ask how great a 
memory he is said to have had. 

a. The Ablative of description, with adjectives, is always used 
when physical characteristics are denoted ; other qualities may be 
in the genitive : as, 

vultu sereno, of calm face. 

capillo sunt promisso (B. G. v. 14), they have long hanging lochs. 



1 Compare Genitive of Quality (215) with Note. 



Ablative of Price ; Locative. 



175 



Ablative of Price. 

252. The price of a thing (or that which is given in 
exchange) is put in the ablative : as, 

agrum vendidit sestertium sex millibus, he sold the field for 6000 

sesterces. 
exsilium patria sede mutavit (Q. C. iii. 8), he exchanged his native 

land for exile. 

Remark. — Either the thing taken or given may be in the ablative, 
and the other in the accusative. 

a. Certain adjectives of Quantity are used in the genitive to 
denote Indefinite Value (see 215. c). Such genitives are magni, 
parvi, tanti, quanti, pluris, minoris : as, 

est mihi tanti (Cat. ii. 7), it is worth my while. 
mea magni interest it is of great consequence to me. 

b. The genitive of certain nouns is used in the same way : as, 
non flocci faciunt (PI. Trin.), they care not a straw. 

The genitives so used are nihili, nothing ; assis, a farthing j 

flocci, a lock of wool, and a few others. 
1 

c. Verbs of exchange take the ablative of Price with or without 

cum : as, 

mortem cum vita commutare (Sulp. ad Cic), to exchange life for death. 

d. With verbs of buying and selling, the ablative of Price 
(magno, &c.) must be used, except the following genitives : tanti, 
quanti, pluris, 7?iinoris. 

Ablative of Specification. 

253. The ablative denotes that in respect to which 
anything is said to be or be done, or in accordance with 
which anything happens : as, 

virtute praecedunt (B. G. i. 1), they excel in courage. 

claudus altero pede (Nep. Ages.), lame of one foot. 

lingua haesitantes, voce absoni (De Or. i.), hesitating in speech, harsh 

in voice. [So meet sententid, ed condicione, and the like.] 
tanta caritas patriae est, ut earn non sensu nostro sed salute ipsius 

metiamur (Tusc. i. 37), such is our love of country that we meastire 

it not by our own feeling, but by hei* own welfare. 

Locative Ablative, 

254. The locative ablative is used to denote the place 
where (usually with a preposition), and the time when. 



176 , Syntax: The Ablative. 

a. The ablative of the place where is retained in many idio- 
matic expressions (compare 259. a) : as, 

pendemus animis (Tusc. i. 40), we are in suspense of mind. 

socius periculis vobiscum adero (Jug. 85), I will be present with you 

a companion in dangers. 
premit altum corde dolorem (JEn. i. 209), he keeps down the pain deep 

in his heart. 

b. The following verbs are followed by the ablative : acquiesco, 
detector, laetor, gaudeo, glorior, nitor, sto, maneo, fido (con/ido), 
consisto, contineor, — with the verbals fretus, contentus, laetus : as, 

spe niti (Att. iii. 9), to rely on hope. 
prudentia fidens (Off. i. 33), trusting in prudence. 
laetari bonis rebus (Lael. 13), to rejoice in good 'things. 
Remark. — The above verbs sometimes take the preposition in. 
Ablative Absolute. 

255. A noun or pronoun, with a participle, 3 is put in 
the ablative, to define the Time or Circumstances of an 
action : as, 

vocatis ad se undique mercatoribus (B. G. iv. 20), having called to 
him the traders from all quarters. 

a. An adjective, or another noun, may take the place of the par- 
ticiple : 2 as, 

exigua parte aestatis reliqua (id.), when but a small part of the summer 

was left. 
M. Messala et M. Pisone consulibus (id. i. 2), in the consulship of 

Jlfessala and Piso. 

b. Sometimes a participle or adjective (under the construction 
of the A_blative Absolute) is put in agreement with a phrase or 
clause, or is used adverbially : as, 

incerto quid peterent, since it was uncertain what they sought. 
consulto et cogitato (Off. i. 8), on purpose and with reflection [the 
matter having been deliberated and thought on]. 

sereno (Liv. xxxi. 12), under a clear sky. 



1 The noun is originally locative denoting circumstance, considered as place 
or time ; then, being modified by a participle, it becomes fused with it into a 
single idea, equivalent to that contained in a subordinate clause (compare ab urbe 
condita, from the founding of the city, lit. from the founded city). After the 
construction was established, other ablatives (of cause, instrument, &c. ), were 
occasionally used in the same way. The construction was so developed in Latin, 
that a subordinate clause is often represented by it. In such cases the noun is 
equivalent to the subject, and the participle, adjective, or noun to the Predicate, and 
should so be translated (see examples on the next page). 

2 The participle of esse, wanting in Latin, would be used in Sanskrit and Greek. 



The Ablative ; Time and Place. 177 

Note. — As the Nominative absolute is less common in Eng- 
lish, a change of form is generally required in translation. Thus 
the present participle is oftenest to be rendered by a relative clause 
with when or while; and the perfect passive participle by the per- 
fect active participle in English. These changes may be seen in 
the following example : — 

" At illi, intermisso spatio, impru- " But they, having paused a space, 

dentibus nostris, atque occupatis in while our men were unaware and 

munitione castrorum, subito se ex busied in fortifying the camp, sud- 

silvis ejecerunt ; impetuque in eos denly threw themselves out of the 

facto, qui erant in statione pro cas- woods ; then making an attack upon 

tris collocati, acriter pugnaverunt ; those who were on guard in front 

duabusque missis subsidio cohortibus of the camp, fought fiercely ; and, 

a Caesare, cum hae (perexiguo in- though two cohorts had been sent to 

termisso loci spatio inter se) con- their relief by Caesar, after these 

stitissent, novo genere pugnae had taken their position [leaving 

perterritis nostris, per medios auda- very little space of ground between 

cissime perruperunt, seque inde them), as our men were alarmed by 

incolumes receperunt." — C^SAR, the strange kind of fighting, they 

B. G. v. 15. dashed most daringly through the 

midst of them, and got off safe.'* 

[For the Ablative with Prepositions, see p. 101.] 

TIME AND PLACE. 
1. — Time. 

256. Time when (or within which) is put in the Abla- 
tive ; time how long in the Accusative : 2 as, 

constituta die, on the set day. 

quota hora ? at what o'clock ? 

tribus proxumis annis (Jug. 11), within the last three years. 

dies continuos triginta, for a month together. 

a. The use of a preposition gives greater precision and clear- 
ness : as, 

in diebus proximis decern (Sail.), within the next ten days. 
ludi per decern dies (Cat. iii. 8), games lasting ten days. 

b. The ablative is rarely used to express duration of time : as, 

milites quinque horis proelium sustinuerant (B. C. i. 47), the men 
had sustained the fight five hours. [This use is locative^ 



1 The ablative of time is locative ; the accusative is the same as that of extent of 
space (see below, 259. d). 



178 Syntax : Time and Place. 

2. — Space. 

257. Extent of space is put in the Accusative i 1 as, 

fossas quindecim pedes latas (B. G. vii. 72), trenches 13 feet broad. 

in omni vita sua quemque a recta conscientia transversum unguem 
non oportet discedere (quoted in Att. xiii. 20), in all one's life, one 
should not depart a nail's breadth from straightforward conscience. 

a. Measure is often expressed as quality by the Genitive 
(215. £): as, 

vallo pedum duodecim (B. G. ii. 30), in a rampart of 12 feet [in 
height]. 

b. Distance is put in the Accusative (as extent of space), or in 
the Ablative (as degree of difference) : as, 

quinque dierum iter abest 2 (Liv. xxx. 29), it is distant five days' march. 
triginta millibus passuum infra eum locum (B. G. vi. 35), thirty miles 
below that place. 

3. — Place. 

258. To express relations of Place, prepositions are 
necessary, except with the names of Towns and small 
Islands ; except also with domus, rus> and a few other 
words in special relations ; 3 except also in Poetry. 

a. The name of the place from which is in the Ablative : as, 

Roma profectus, having set out from Rome.* 
rure reversus, having returned froi?i the cotintry. 

b. The name of the place to which is in the Accusative : as, 

Romam rediit, he returned to Rome. 
rus ibo, I shall go into the country. 

Remark. — The old construction is retained in the phrases exsequias 
ire, infitias ire, pessum ire, pessicm dare, venum dare (vendere), venum ire 
(veneo), foras, and with the Supine in um. 



1 This accusative is the object through or over which the action takes place, 
and is kindred with the accusative of the end of motion. 2 From Rome, a Roma. 

3 Originally these relations were expressed with all words by the cases alone, — 
the Accusative denoting the end of motion as in a certain sense the object of the 
action ; and the Ablative (in its proper meaning of separation) denoting the place 
from which. For the place where there was a special case, the Locative, the 
form of which was partially retained and partially merged in the Ablative (see Note, 
p. 168). The Prepositions (originally Adverbs) were added to define more exactly 
the direction of the motion, and by long usage at length became necessary, except 
in the cases given above. 4 To be absent from Rome, Roma abesse. 



Locative Uses. 



179 



c. The name of the place where takes the Locative form, which 
in the first and second declensions singular is the same as the 
Genitive ; in the plural, and in the third declension, the same as 
the Dative or Ablative : as, 

Romae, at Rome. Athenis, at Athens. 

Rhodi, at Rhodes. Curibus, at Cures. 

Lanuvi, at Lanuvium. Tiburi or Tibure, at Tibur. 

Remark. — The names of small islands, as Capreae, Samos, Salami's, 
are regularly used in this construction ; sometimes also larger distant 
islands, which might be thought of as a single spot : thus, Cretae, Cypri. 
But, when regarded as a district or province, the name of a large island 
(like Sicily) always requires a preposition, like names of countries. So 
too a small island, when thought of as territory : as, in Ithaca lepores 
illaii morhmtur (Plin. : cf. 256. a). 

d. The words domi (rarely domui), at home; belli, militiae 
(in contrast to domi), abroad, in military service; humi, on the 
ground; ruri, in the country ; foris, out-of-doors ; terra marique, 
by land and sea, are used like names of towns, without a preposi- 
tion ; also heri, vesperi, infelici arbori (Liv.). 

e. A genitive or possessive may be used with domus in this 
construction ; but, when it is modified in any other way, a preposi- 
tion is generally used : as, 

domi Caesaris, at Ccesar^s hoitse. 

domi suae vel alienae, at his ozvn or another 's house (compare 184. d). 

in M. Laecae domum (Cat. i. 4), to Lcecd's house. 

f. The ablative is used without a preposition to denote the place 
where, in many general words — as loco, parte — regularly ; fre- 
quently with nouns when qualified by adjectives (regularly where 
totus is used) ; and in poetry in any case : as, 

quibus loco positis (De Or. iii. 38), when these are set in position. 
qua parte victi erant (Att. ix. 11), on the side where they were beaten. 
se oppido tenet' (id.), keeps himself within the town. 
media urbe (Liv. i. 33), in the midst of the city. 
tota Sicilia (Verr. iv. 23), throughout Sicily. 
litore curvo (Aen. iii. 16), on the bending shore. 

Remark. — To denote the neighborhood of a place (to, from, in the 
neighborhood), Prepositions must be used. 

g. The way by which is put in the Ablative (of instrument) : as, 

via breviore equites praemisi (Fam. x. 9), / sent forward the cavalry 
by a shorter road. 

Aegeo mari trajecit (Liv. xxxvii. 14), he crossed by way of 'the ALgean sea. 



180 Syntax : Time and Place. 

Special Uses. 

259. The following special uses require to be ob- 
served : — 

a. Many expressions have in Latin the construction of time 
when, where in English time is not the main idea: as, 

pugna Cannensi (or apud Cannas), in the fight at Cannes, 

ludis Romanis, at the Roman ga?nes. 

omnibus Gallicis bellis, in all the wars of Gaul, 

b. In many expressions of time, the accusative with ad, in, or 
sub, is used. Such are the following : — 

supplicatio decreta est in Kalendas Januarias, a thanksgiving was voted 
for the \st of January. 

convenerunt ad diem, they assembled at the [appointed] day, 

ad vesperum, till evening ; sub vesperum, towards (about) evening, 

sub idem tempus, about the same time. 

c. Time either during or within which may be expressed by a 
noun in the singular, with an ordinal numeral : as, 

quinto die, within (just) four days. 

regnat jam sextum annum, he has reigned going on six years. But also, 

regnavit jam sex annos, he has already reigned for six years. 

d. Distance of time before or after any thing is variously ex- 
pressed : as, 

post (ante) tres annos, post tertium annum, tres post annos, tertium 
post annum, tribus post annis, tertio post anno, three years after. 

tribus annis (tertio anno) post exsilium (post quam ejectus est), three 
years after his banish?nent. 

his tribus proximis annis, within the last three years, 

paucis annis, a few years hence. 

abhinc annos tres (tribus annis), ante hos tres annos, three years ago. 

triennium est cum (tres anni sunt cum), it is three years since. 

e. In Dates, the phrase ante diem (a. d.) with an ordinal, or 
the ordinal alone, is followed by an accusative, like a preposition ; 
and the phrase itself may be governed by a preposition. The year 
is expressed by the names of the Consuls in the ablative absolute, 
often without a conjunction : as, 

is dies erat a. d. quintum kalendas AprilTs L. Pisone A. Gabinio 
consulibus (B. G. i. 6), that day was the $th before the calends of April 
[March 28], in the consulship of Piso and Gabinius. 

in a. d. V. kal. Nov. (Cat. i. 3), to the yth day before the calejids of No- 
vember [Oct. 28]. 

xv. kal. Sextilis, the i$th day before the calends of August (July 18). 
[Full form, quinto decimo die ante kalendas. \ 



Use of Prepositions. 



181 



f. With names of Places (except towns, &c, see 258), to is 
expressed by in or ad with the accusative ; in by in or ab with 
the ablative ; from by ab, de, ex, with the ablative. But at, 
meaning near (not in), is expressed with all names of place by ad 
or apud, with the accusative. 

g. When motion to a place is implied in Latin, though not ex- 
pressed in English, the accusative must be used, with or without a 
preposition : as, 

conjurati in curiam convenerunt, the conspirators met in the Senate 
house. 

concilium domum suam convocavit, he called a council at his own hcruse. 

h. When several names of place follow a verb of motion, each 

must be under its own construction. Thus — 

quadriduo quo haec gesta sunt res ad Chrysogonum in castra L. Sul- 
lae Volaterras defertur (Ros. Am. 7), within a few days after this 
was done, the matter was reported TO Chrysogonus IN Sylld's camp AT 
Volaterrce. 

USE OF PREPOSITIONS. 

280. Prepositions are used with either the Accusative 
or Ablative. 1 

[For the list of Prepositions, see page 101.] 

a. Verbs of placing, — such as pono and its compounds (ex- 
cept impono), loco, statuo, &c, — though implying motion, take 
in Latin the construction of the place in which : as, 

qui in sede ac domo collocavit (Parad. hi. 2), who put one into his place 
and home. 

b. Position is frequently expressed in Latin with ab (rarely ex), 
properly meaning from : 2 as, 

a tergo, in the rear. 

a parte Pompeiana, on the side of Pompey. 

2l sinistra (compare hinc, on this side), on the left hand. 

ex altera parte, on the other side. 

magna ex parte, in a great degree. 

c. When it means concerning, super takes the Ablative ; other- 
wise the Accusative (except in poetry) : as, 

hac super re (Cic), concerning this thing. 

super culmina tecti (JEn. ii. 695), above the house-top. 



1 The force lies strictly with the Case, and the preposition only indicates more 
clearly directio?i or place. 

2 Apparently the direction whence the sensual impression comes. 



1 82 Syntax: Use of Prepositions. 

d. After subter, the Accusative is used, except sometimes in 
poetry : as, 

subter togam (Liv.), under his mantle. 
subter litore (Catull.), below the shore. 

e. Tenus (which follows its noun) regularly takes the Ablative, 
sometimes the Genitive : as, 

Tauro tenus (Dei. 13), as far as Taurus. 
capulo tenus (Aen. v. 55), up to the hilt. 
Corcyrae tenus (Liv. xxv. 24), as far as Corcyra. 

Note. — Tenus is found especially with the feminine of the 
adjective pronouns, in an adverbial sense : as, 

hactenus, hitherto ; quatenus, so far as •, &c. 

261. Many words may be construed either as Preposi- 
tions or as Adverbs : as, 

a* The adverbs pridie, postridie, propius, proxh?ie, usque — 
also (less frequently) the adjectives propior and proxi?nus — may 
be followed by the Accusative : as, 

pridie Nonas Junias (Cic), the day before the Nones of June (Jun. 4). 
postridie ludos (id.), the day after the games (or genitive : see 214.^). 
terminos usque Libyae (Just.), to the bounds of Libya (a late use), 
ipse propior montem suos collocat (Sail. Jug. 49), he statio?ts his men 

nearer the hill (used also with the genitive or dative, or with ab). 
proxime Pompeium sedebam (Att. i. 14). I sat next Pompey (used also 

with the dative, or with ab). 

b. The adverbs palam, procul, simul, may take the Abla- 
tive : as, 

rem creditori palam populo solvit (Liv. vi. 14), he paid the debt in the 
presence of the people. [This use is comparatively late.] 

haud procul castris in modum municipii exstructa (Tac. H. iv. 22), not 
far from the camp, built up like a town. [But procul is regularly fol- 
lowed by ab in classic use.] 

simul nobis habitat barbarus (Ov. Tr. v. to, 29), close among us dwells 
the barbarian. [But simul regularly takes cum.] 

c. The adverb clam is found with the Accusative or Ablative, 
rarely with the Genitive or Dative : as, 

clam matrem suam (Plaut.), unknown to his mother. 

clam mihi (id.), in secret from me. 

clam patris (id.), in secret from his father. 

clam vobis (Caes. B. C. ii. 32), without your knowledge. 



Prepositions, 183 

d. Prepositions often retain their original meaning as Adverbs. 
This is especially the case with ante and post, in relations of 
Time ; adversus, contra, circiter, prope j and, in general, those 
ending in a. Clam and versus are often excluded from the 
list of Prepositions. 

[For the use of Prepositions in Composition, see 170, p. 116.] 

262. Some prepositions or adverbs which imply Com- 
parison are followed, like comparatives, by quam, — 
several words, or even clauses, sometimes coming be- 
tween : as, 

neque ante dimisit eum quam fidem dedit (Liv. xxxix, 10), nor did 

he let him go until he gave a pledge. 
post diem tertium quam dixerat (Man. 16), the third day after he said 

it [So octavo mense quam, Liv. xxi. 15. J 

Note. — Such words are ante, prius, post, pridie, postridiej 
also magis and prae in compounds : as, 

Cato ipse jam servire quam pugnare mavult ( Att. vii. 15), Cato himself 
by this time would rather be a slave than fight. 

si jam principatum Galliae obtinere non possint, Gallorum quam Ro- 
manorum imperia praeferre (B. G. i. 17), if they can no longer hold 
the chief rank in Gaul, they prefer the rule of Gauls to that of Romans. 

263. The ablative, with a or ab, is regularly used 
after passive verbs to denote the Agent, if a person, or 
if spoken of as a person : as, 

jussus a patre, bidden by his father. 

Remark. — The ablative of the agent (which requires the 
preposition) must be carefully distinguished from the ablative of 
instrument, which stands by itself : as, 

occisus gladio, slain by a sword. 

occisus ab hoste, slain by an enemy. 

[For the Dative of the Agent, with the Gerundive, see 232.] 
Note. — The following prepositions sometimes follow their 

nouns : — ad, citra, circa, contra, de, e (ex), inter, juxta, penes, 

propter, ultra, tenus : as, 

[usus] quern penes arbitrium est et jus et norma loquendi (Hor. A. P. 
72), custom, under whose co?itrol is the choice, right, and rule of speech. 

cujus a me corpus est crematum, quod contra decuit ab illo meum 
(C. M. 23), whose body I burned [on the funeral pile], while on the 
contrary (lit. contrary to which) mine should have been by him. 



184 Syntax: The Verb. 



Chapter III. — Syntax of the Verb. 

I. — Moods and Tenses* 

Note. — The syntax of the Verb relates chiefly to the use of the 
Moods (expressing the manner in which the action is conceived) and 
the Tenses (expressing the time of the action). There is no difference 
in origin between mood and tense. The moods, except the Infinitive, 
are only specialized tenses; and hence the uses of mood and tense 
frequently cross each other. Thus the tenses sometimes have modal 
significations (compare indicative in apodosis, see 311. c ; future for 
imperative, see 269./) ; and the moods express time (compare subjunctive 
in future conditions, and notice the want of a future subjunctive). 

The original language, besides the imperative mood, had two distinct 
forms with what we call modal signification : the Subjunctive, expressing 
an action willed or vividly conceived ; and the Optative, expressing an 
action wished for or vaguely conceived. Of these, the Subjunctive was 
developed from a Present tense, by which an action continued in present 
time was represented as Future : compare in English, the army marches 
to-morrow. Such an action came to be conceived on the one hand as 
Command : compare the military order, the regiment will advance ; and 
in the other as a Possibility or a mere Conception : compare anybody 
will understand that. 

The Optative has had a similar development from a tense-form 
compounded with ya, to go. Bat it is probable that it originally had the 
signification of a Past tense : compare the English should and would. 
At any rate, the optative has, in the same way as the subjunctive, 
acquired the two meanings of Conception and Command. It must not 
be supposed, however, that in any given construction either of the 
moods was used because it denoted a conception or possibility ; but 
each construction has had its own line of development from more 
tangible forms of thought to more vague and ideal. Thus in English 
the expression / would do this has come to be almost equivalent to a 
mild command ; while by analysis it is seen to be the apodosis of a 
condition contrary to fact : if I were you, &c. By a still further 
analysis, / would go is seen to have meant, originally, / should have 
wished to go, or / did wish. 

In Latin, these two moods have become confounded in form and mean- 
ing in the Present Subjunctive ; and new tense-forms of the subjunctive 
have been produced by composition, 1 to which the original as well as 
derived meanings of these moods have become attached (see 265). All 
the independent uses of the subjunctive are thus to be accounted for. 



1 For the signification of these tense endings, see page 65, Note 1. 



Moods ; The Indicative. 



185 



The dependent uses of the subjunctive have arisen from its use in 
one of these independent senses, — at first co-ordinately with a main 
statement (parataxis), afterwards in subordinate relations (syntaxis). 
In time, the second has become so closely connected in thought with 
the first, that the two have become one compound statement ; the 
original meaning of the mood has disappeared, and a new meaning has 
arisen by implication : as, tolle hanc opinionem, luctum sustuleris (remove 
this notion, you will have done away with grief: i. e. if you remove, 
&c ) ; or, misit legatos qui dicer ent (i e. who would say in a supposed case). 

The Infinitive is originally a verbal noun, modifying a verb like 
other nouns ; volo videre, lit. " I wish for seeing : " compare English 
what went ye out for to see ? But in Latin it has been surprisingly devel- 
oped, so as to have forms for tense, and some proper modal character- 
istics, and to be used as a substitute for other moods. 

The other noun and adjective forms of the verb have been developed 
in various special directions, which are treated under their respective 
heads below. The several verbal constructions proper are the follow- 
ing : — 

1. Indicative : Direct Assertion or Question ; Absolute Time. 

Independent : Wish, Exhortation, Command, Ques- 
tion. 

Purpose or Result (with ut, ?ie). 
Characteristic (Relative Clause). 
Relative Time (with cum). 

Conditions j * nta ™ (primary tenses). 

I Contrary to Fact. 
Intermediate (Indirect Discourse). 
[ Indirect Questions or Commands. 



2. Subjunctive : -j 



b. Dependent 
(Chap, v.) 



3. Imperative : 



4. Infinitive : 



a. Direct Commands (often subjunctive). 

b. Statutes, Laws and Wills (Future). 

c. Prohibitions (early or poetic use). 

f a. Subject of esse and Impersonal verbs. 

b. Object j Complementary Infinitive. 

\ Indirect Discourse (with subject-accusative). 

{ Purpose (poetic or Greek use). 

c. Idiomatic Uses -j Exclamation (with subject-accus.). 

[ Historical Infinitive. 



MOODS. 

I— THE INDICATIVE. 

264, The Indicative is the mood of direct assertions 
or questions when there is no modification of the verbal 
idea except that of time. 

a. The tenses of the Indicative denote Absolute Time ; that 
is, present, past, or future, with reference to the speaker. 



1 86 Syntax of Moods. 

§ 57 I b. The indicative is sometimes used where the English idiom 



l. 



would suggest the subjunctive, chiefly in conditional sentences 
(compare 307. b, c) : as, 

longum est, it would be tedioits [if, &c.]. 
satius erat, it would have been better [if, &c.]. 
persequi possum, I might follow up [in detail]. 

c. The Future Indicative is sometimes used for the Imperative 
(see 269. f). 

d. The indicative is used in some kinds of Conditions (see 
306, 308). 

e. The place of the indicative in narration is sometimes supplied 
by the Infinitive (see 275). 

/. In Indirect Discourse (see Chap. V.), a narrative clause takes 
the Infinitive. 

II. — THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 
General Use. 

265. The Subjunctive in general expresses the verbal 
idea with some modification 1 such as is expressed in 
English by potential auxiliaries, by the Infinitive, or by 
the rare Subjunctive. 

a. The subjunctive is used Independently to express — 

1. An Exhortation, Concession, or Command {Hortatory') ; 

2. A Wish {Optative) ; 

3. A Question of doubt or deliberation (Dubitative). 

These (with the exception of some forms of Dubitative Sub- 
junctive) are closely akin to one another, and are different phases 
of the same use. 

Remark. — In the conclusion (Aftodosis) of Conditional Sen- 
tences, the Subjunctive is grammatically independent, though 
logically it depends on a Condition expressed or implied. The 
so-called Potential Subjunctive comes under this head (see 311. a). 



1 These modifications, however, are of various kinds, each of which has had its 
own special development (compare introductory Note, p. 184). The Subjunctive in 
Latin has besides many idiomatic uses (see clauses of Result and Relative Time), 
where we do not modify the verbal idea at all, but express it directly; but in 
these cases the Latin merely takes a different view of the action, and has developed 
its construction differently from English. 



Moods: The Subjunctive. 



187 



b. The subjunctive is used in Dependent Clauses to express — 

1 . Purpose or Result {Final or Consecutive) ; 

2. Relative Time {Temporal) ; 

3. Characteristic ; 

4. Indirect Question ; 

5. Condition : Future or Contrary to Fact. 

c. The subjunctive is also used with Particles of Comparison, 
and in Subordinate Clauses of Indirect Discourse. 

Hortatory. 

266. The Subjunctive is used in the Present — less 
commonly in the Perfect — to express an Exhortation, a 
Concession, or a Command : as, 

hos latrones interficiamus (B. G. vii. 58), let us kill these robbers. 
caveant intemperantiam, meminerint verecundiae (Off. i. 34), let them 

shun excess a,7id cherish modesty. 
Epicurus hoc viderit (Acad. ii. 7), let Epicurus look to this. 

Note. — The Perfect represents an action as complete in the future ; 
but in most cases it can hardly be distinguished from the Present. 

a. The Second Person is used only of an indefinite subject, 
except in prohibition, in early Latin, and in poetry (cf. 269. b) : as, 

injurias fortunae, quas ferre nequeas, defugiendo relinquas (Tusc. 

v. 41), the wrongs of fortune ', which you cannot bear, yoit may leave 

behind by flight. 
nihil ignoveris (Mur. 31), pardon nothing. 

b. In Prohibitions, addressed to a definite person, the perfect is 
more common than the present (compare 269. a) : as, 

hoc facito : hoc ne feceris (Div. ii. 61), thou shalt do this ; thou shalt 

not do that. 
nee mihi illud dixeris (Fin. i. 7), do not say that to me. 

c. The subjunctive is used — sometimes with ut, quamvis, 
quamlibet, and similar words — to express a Concession : 1 as, 

nemo is unquam fuit : ne fuerit (Or. 29), there never was such a one 

[you will say] '.granted. 
quamvis comis in amicitiis tuendis fuerit (Fin. ii. 25), amiable as he 

may have been in keeping his friendships. 

1 In this use, the Present refers to future or indefinite time : the Imperfect to 
present or past time, — the concession being impliedly untrue ; the Perfect to past 
time or completed future time ; the Pluperfect to completed action in past time 
(usually untrue). 



1 88 Syntax of Moods. 



ne sit summum malum dolor, malum certe est (Tusc. ii. 5), granted 

that pain is not the greatest evil, at least it is an evil. 
fuerit aliis : tibi quando esse coepit (Verr. i. 41), suppose he was [so] 

to others, when did he begin to be to you ? 

ut rationem Plato nullam afferret (Tusc. i. 21), though Plato adduced no 
reasons. 

quamvis scelerati illi fuissent (de Or. i. 53), however guilty they might 
have been. 

Remark. — Concessions with si and its compounds belong to Prota- 
sis (see 204) ; with licet, to Substantive Clauses (see p. 225). 

d. The subjunctive is used — sometimes with modo, modo ne, 
tantum, tantum ne, or ne alone — to denote a Proviso : as, 

valetudo modo bona sit (Brut. 16), if only the health be good. 

modo ne sit ex pecudum genere (Off. i. 30), provided only he be not of 
brutish stock. 

manent ingenia senibus, modo permaneat studium et industria (Cat. 
M. 7), old men retain their mind if they only retain their zeal and 
diligence. 

e. The Imperfect and Pluperfect of the hortatory subjunctive 
denote an obligation in past time, — the latter more clearly repre- 
senting the time for the action as past : as, 

moreretur, inquies (Rab. Post. rt>), he should have died you will say. 
ne poposcisses (Att. ii. \),you should not have asked. 
potius diceret (Off. iii. 22), he should rather have said. 
saltern aliquid de pondere detraxisset (Fin. iv. 20), at least he should 
have taken something from the weight 

Remark. — This use of the subjunctive is carefully to be distinguished 
from its use in Apodosis (Potential), as is indicated by the translation, 
should instead of would. 

Optative. 

267. The Subjunctive is used to denote a Wish, — 
the present, a wish conceived as possible ; the imperfect, 
an unaccomplished one in the present ; the pluperfect, 
one unaccomplished in the past : as, 

ita vivam (Att. v. 15), so may I live [as true as I live]. 

ne vivam si scio (id. iv. 16), I wish I may not live if I know. 

di te perduint (Deiot.), the gods confound thee ! 

valeant, valeant, cives mei ; valeant, sint incolumes (Mil. 34), fare- 
well [he says], my fellow-citizens ; may they be secure from harm. 

di facerent sine patre forem (Ov. Met. viii. 72), would that the gods 
allowed me to be without a father I 



Moods: The Subjunctive. 189 

Note. — The subjunctive of Wish without a particle is hardly found 
in the imperfect or pluperfect except by sequence of tenses in Indirect 
Discourse : as, 

ac venerata Ceres ita culmo surgeret alto (Hor. S. ii. 2, 124), and 
Ceres worshipped [with libations] that so she might rise with tall stalk. 

a. The Perfect in this use is antiquated : as, 

male di tibi faxint (Plaut. Cure. 131), may the gods do thee a mischief. 

b. The particles uti (ut), utinam, O si, 1 often precede the sub- 
junctive of Wish : as, 

falsus utinam vates sim (Liv. xxi.), / wish I may be a false prophet. 
utinam P. Clodius viveret (Mil. 38), would that Clodius were now alive. 
utinam me mortuum vidisses (Q. Fr. i. 3), would yon had seen me dead. 
ut pereat positum rubigine telum (Hor. Sat. ii. 1), may the weapon 
unused perish with rust. 

c. Velim and vellem, 2 also their compounds, with a subjunctive 
or infinitive, are often equivalent to a proper optative subjunctive : 
as, 

de Menedemo vellem verum fuisset, de regina velim verum sit (Att. 

iv. 16), about Menedemus I wish it had been true ; about the queen I hope 

it may be. 
nollem accidisset tempus (Fam. i ii. 10), I wish the time never had come. 

[For Concessive Subjunctive \ see p. 187 ; for Potential Subjunc- 
tive, see p. 225.] 

Dubitative. 

268. The Subjunctive is used in questions implying 
doubt, indignation, or an impossibility of the thing being 
done : as, 

quid hoc homine facias ? quod supplicium dignum libidini ejus inve- 
nias (Verr. ii. 16), zuhat are you to do with this man? what fit pen- 
alty can you devise for his wantonness ? 

quis enim celaverit ignem (OV. Her. xv. 7 ), who could conceal the flame ? 

an ego non venirem (Phil. ii. 2), what, should I not have come? 

quid dicerem (Att. vi. 3), what was I to say ? 

mihi umquam bonorum praesidium defuturum putarem (Mil. 34), could 
I think that the defence of good men would ever fail me ? 

Remark. — This use is apparently derived from the hortatory subjunc- 
tive : quid faciamus = faciamus [aliquid] — quid? Once established, it 
is readily transferred to the past: quid faciam? quid facerem? Some 
of the uses, however, cannot be distinguished from Apodosis (cf. 305). 

1 In this use, the particle has no effect on the grammatical construction, except 
that the clause -with O si is probably a Protasis. 

2 These are strictly Apodoses, the thing wished being in a dependent clause, 
and the Protasis omitted. 



190 Syntax of Moods. 

III. —THE IMPERATIVE. 

269. The Imperative is used in Commands ; also, by 
early writers and poets, in Prohibitions : as, 

consulite vobis, prospicite patriae, conservate vos (Cat. iv. 2), have 

care for yourselves, guard the country, preserve yourselves. 
nimium ne crede colori (Eel. ii. 17), trust not complexion overmuch. 

a. Prohibitions are regularly (in classical Latin) expressed — 
1. by ne with the second person singular of the Perfect Subjunc- 
tive ; 2. by noli with the Infinitive ; 3. by cave (colloquially fac 
ne) with the Present or Perfect Subjunctive : as, 

ne territus fueris (Tac. H. i. 16), be not frightened. 

noli putare (Brut. 33), do not suppose. 

cave faxis (Ter Heaut. 187), do not do it. 

fac ne quid aliud cures (Fam. xvi.. 11) , pray attend to nothing else. 

b. In early Latin, in poetry, and in general prohibitions, the 

Present subjunctive is also used (see 266. a) : as, 

denique isto bono utare dum adsit : cum absit ne requiras (C. M. 10), 
in short, use this good while present ; when wanting, do not regret it. 

c. The third person of the Imperative is antiquated or poetic: 

ollis salus populi suprema lex esto (id.), the safety of the people shall be 

their first law. 
justa imperia sunto, iisque cives modeste parento (Leg. iii. 3), let the 

commands be just, and let the citizens strictly obey them. 

d. The Future Imperative is used where there is a distinct ref- 
erence to future time : viz., 

1. In connection with a future or future-pe7fect j 

2. With adverbs or other expressions of Time ; 

3. In general directions, as Precepts, Statutes, and Wills : as, 

cum valetudini consulueris, turn consulito navigationi (Fam. xvi. 4), 

when you have attended to your health, then look to yoitr sailing. 

is juris civilis custos esto (Leg. iii. 3), let him (the praetor) be the 
guardian of civil right. 

e. The Future form of the imperative is regularly used of scio, 
memini, and habeo (in the sense of consider) : as, 

filiolo me auctum scito ( Att. i. 2), learn that I am blessed with a little boy. 
sic habeto, mi Tiro (Fam. xvi. 4), so tinder stand it, my good Tiro. 
de palla memento, amabo (PI. Asm.), pray, dear, remember the gown. 

f The Future is sometimes used for the imperative ; and quin 
(why not ?) with the present indicative may have the force of an 
imperative : as, 

si quid accident novi, facies ut sciam (Fam. xiv. 8), you will let me 

know if any thing new happens. 
quin accipis ? (Ter. Heaut. iv. 7), here, take it. 



The Infinitive. 191 

IV. — THE INFINITIVE. 
Note. — The Infinitive denotes the action of the verb as an abstract 
noun, differing, however, from other abstract nouns in the following 
points: (i) It admits, in many cases, of the distinction of tense ;^ 
(2) It is modified by adverbs and not by adjectives ; (3) It governs the 
case of its verb ; (4) It is only used in special constructions. The In- 
finitive is properly the Dative case of an abstract noun, denoting Purpose, 
which has developed in Latin, in many cases, into a substitute for a finite 
verb. Hence the variety of its use. Its Subject is, strictly, the Object 
of some other verb, which has become attached to it : as, jubeo te 
valere, lit., / co?nmand you for being well (i. e. that you may be well), 
just as, in Purpose-clauses, the purpose becomes the object of command. 

270. The Infinitive, with or without a subject accusa- 
tive, may be used as the Subject of a verb, or in predi- 
cate apposition : as ; 

nihil est aliud bene et beate vivere, nisi honeste et recte vivere (Parad. 

i. 6), to live well and happily, is nothing else than to live honorably 

and rightly. 
nam istuc ipsum non esse cum fueris miserrimum puto (Tusc. i. 6), for 

I think this very thing most wretched, not to be when one has been. 

a. The infinitive as Subject is found chiefly with esse and 
impersonal verbs, — rarely with others. 

b. The infinitive is used with many impersonal verbs and ex- 
pressions, partly as Subject and partly as Complement : as, 

id primum in poetis cerni licet (De Or. iii. 7), this may be seen first 

in poets. 
reperiebat quid dici opus esset (Brut. 59). he found what needed to 

be said. 
haec praescripta servantem licet magnifice vivere (Off. i. 26), one who 

observes these precepts may live 710b ly. 

Complementary Infinitive. 

271. The infinitive, without a subject, is used with 
verbs which imply another action of the same subject to 
complete their meaning : 1 as, 

hoc queo dicere (Cat. M. 10), this I can say. 

mitto quaerere (Rose. Am.), I omit to ask. 

vereor laudare praesentem (N. D. i. 21), I fear to praise in one^s own 

presence. 
oro ut matures venire (Att. iv. 1), pray make haste to come. 



1 The mark of this construction is that no Subject of these infinitives is in 
general admissible or conceivable; though the same verbs, in other senses, and 
rarely also by analogy in the same sense, may take an infinitive with a subject. 



192 Syntax of Moods. 

Note. — Such are verbs denoting to be able, dare, undertake, 
reinember, forget, be accustomed, begin, continue, cease, hesitate, 
learn, know how, fear, and (in general) verbs which have another 
action of the same subject closely connected with them. 

a. The infinitive is used optionally with many verbs which also 
take a Subjunctive Clause. Such are those signifying willing- 
ness, necessity, propriety, resolve, command, prohibition, effort, 
and the like : x as, 

quos tueri debent deserunt (Off. i. 9), they forsake those whom they 
should protect. 

student excellere (Off. i. 32), they aim to excel. 

istum exheredare in animo habebat (Rose. Am. 18), he had it i?i mind 
to deprive him of the inheritance. 

cupio me esse clementem [= cupio esse clemens] (Cat. i. 2), / desire 
to be merciful. 

b. Some verbs of these classes — jubeo and veto regularly — 
may take the infinitive with another subject : 2 as, 

signa inferri jubet (Liv. xlii. 59), he orders the standards to be advanced. 

Subject- Accusative, 

272. The infinitive, with subject accusative, is used 
with verbs and other expressions of Knowing, Thinking, 
Telling, and Perceiving : 3 as, 

dicit montem ab hostibus teneri (B. G. i. 22), he says that the hill is 
held by the enemy [direct, mons ab hostibus tenetur]. 

Remark. — The Infinitive Clause may be either — 1. the Direct 
Object of the verb : as, Caesarem adesse nuntiavit ; 2. the Subject of 
the same verb in the passive : as, Caesarem adesse nuntiatwn est ; 3. 
the Predicate after some such phrase as rumor est, &c. : as, rumor erat 
Caesarem adesse. In the last case, it is sometimes called the Object of 
the Verbal Phrase rumor erat. 



1 The subject is usually, though not always, omitted, when it is the same 
as that of the principal verb. 

2 This construction, though in many cases different from the two preceding, 
shades off imperceptibly into them. In none of the uses is the infinitive strictly 
Subject or Object ; but its meaning is developed from the original one of purpose. 
Hence the distinction between the uses is not always clearly marked. 

3 The Infinitive may thus represent, in iiidirect discourse, a finite verb in 
direct discourse, admitting all the variations of the verb except number and per- 
son (see Chap. V.). 



The Infinitive. 193 

a. With verbs which govern the dative, the subject of the 
action may be in the dative. With licet regularly, and with others 
rarely, the predicate may also be in the dative : as, 

non libet mihi deplorare vitam (Cat. M. 23), / have no desire to be- 
wail life. 

mihi negligenti esse non licet (Att. i. 17), I must not be negligent (also 
negligentem, and regularly so where the subject is indefinite). 

non est stantibus omnibus necesse dicere (Marc. 11), it is not necessary 
for all to speak standing. 

b. When the subject of the infinitive is not expressed, a predi- 
cate noun or adjective takes the case of the subject of the leading 
verb. This is rarely found (by a Greek idiom) even in Indirect 
Discourse : as, 

vir bonus et sapiens ait esse paratus (Hor. Ep. i. 7), a good and wise 

man says he is prepared, &c. 
sensit medios delapsus in hostes (JEn. ii. 377), he found himself fallen 

among the foe. 

Purpose. 

273. In a few cases, the Infinitive retains its original 
meaning of Purpose : viz. 

a. With habeo, do, ministro, in isolated passages : as, 

tantum habeo polliceri (Fam. i. 5), so much I have to promise. [Here 
the more usual construction would be quod pollicear.] 

b. The Infinitive is found after paratus, suetus (used as adjec- 
tives), and their compounds : as, 

id quod parati sunt facere (Quin. 2), which they are ready to do. 

c. In poetry and later writers almost any verb may have the 
infinitive, after the analogy of verbs of simpler meaning that take 
it in prose : as, 

furit te reperire (Hor. Od. i. 15), he rages to find thee (a forcible way of 
saying cupit). 

d. Many adjectives take the Infinitive in poetry following a 
Greek idiom : as, 

durus componere versus (Hor. Sat. i. 4), harsh in composing verse. 
cantari dignus (Eel. v. 54), worthy to be sung. 

Remark. — Rarely, in poetry, the Infinitive is used to denote 
Result. 13 



194 Syntax of Tenses. 

274. The Infinitive, with subject-accusative, 1 may be 
used in Exclamations (compare 240. d) : as, 

mene incepto desistere victam (JEn. i. 37), what I I desist beaten from 

my purpose ? 
te in tantas aerumnas propter me incidisse (Fam. xiv. ij, alas ! that 

you should fall into such grief for me. 

Historical Infinitive. 

275. The Infinitive is often used for the tenses of 
the Indicative in narration, and takes a subject in the 
nominative: as, 

turn Catilina polliceri novas tabulas (Sail. Cat. 21), then Catiline 

pro?nised abolitioiz of debts [clean ledgers], 
ego instare ut mihi responderet ( Verr. ii. jj), I kept urging him to answer. 
Remark. — This usage is most frequent where many verbs 
are crowded together in rapid narrative : as, 

pars cedere, alii insequi ; neque signa neque ordines servare ; ubi 
quemque periculum ceperat, ibi resistere ac propulsare ; arma, 
tela, equi, viri, hostes atque cives permixti ; nihil consilio neque 
imperio agi ; fors omnia regere (Jug. 51), a part give way, others 
press on ; they hold neither to standards nor ranks ; where dayiger 
overtook , there each would stand and fight ; arms, weapons > horses, 
men, foe and friend, mingled i?t confttsion ; nothing went by counsel 
or command ; chance ruled all, 

TENSES. 

Note. — The number of possible Tenses, in the ordinary meaning of 
the word, is very great. For in each of the three times, Present, Past, 
and Future, an action may be represented as going on, completed, or 
beginning; as habitual or isolated; as defined in time or indefinite 
(aoristic) ; as absolute or relative to some other time; or the past and 
future times may be near or remote. Thus a possible scheme of thirty 
or more tenses might be devised. 

But, in the development of forms, which always takes place gradually, 
no language finds occasion for more than a small part of these. The 
most obvious distinctions, according to our habits of thought, appear 
in the following scheme : — 

1. Definite (fixing the time of the action). 2. Indefinite. 
Incomplete. Complete. Aoristic. 

Present, a. I a?n writing. 5. / have zvritten. rj. I write. 

Past. fi. I was writing. €. I had written. 6. I wrote. 

Future. 7. I shall be writing. (. I shall have written, k. I shall write. 



1 This Construction is elliptical ; that is, the thought is quoted in Indirect 
Discourse, though no verb of Saying, &c, appears, or perhaps is thought of 
(compare the French dire que). 



The Present. 195 

This scheme does not, indeed, give all the distinctions in use ; nor do 
most languages furnish forms for all of these. Most languages disre- 
gard some of these distinctions, and some make other distinctions not 
here given. The language from which Latin sprang had a Present tense 
to express a and 77, a Perfect to express 8, an Aorist to express 0, a Fu- 
ture to express 7 and k, and an Imperfect to express /3. The Latin, 
however, confounded the Perfect and Aorist in a single form (scripsi), 
thus losing the distinction between 5 and 0. The nature of this confu- 
sion may be seen by comparing dixi, dicavi, and didici (all Perfects derived 
from the same root DIK), with e5ei|a, adiksham, SeSeixa, dideca. Latin 
also developed other forms for e (scripseram) and £ [scripsero), giving six 
tenses, as seen in 115 (p. 62). 

The line between these, moreover, is not a hard and fast one, nor is 
it precisely the line which we draw in English. Thus in many verbs, on 
account of a peculiarity of meaning, the form for 5 has the sense of a or 
77, and the form for e the sense of jQ. Again, Latin often uses the form 
for £to express k, or even 7. Thus novi ("I have learned ") is used for 
"I know;" constiterat ("he had taken his position ") for "he stood ; " 
cognovero ("I shall have learned") for "I shall be aware." The idio- 
matic uses of the language are in all cases to be noticed. 

Present. 

276. The Present denotes an action or state as now 
existing, as incomplete, or as indefinite (without reference 
to time) : as, 

Senatus haec intellegit, consul videt, hie tamen vivit (Cat. i. 1), the 
Seizate k?tazvs this, the consul sees, yet this 7nan lives. 

tu actionem instituis, ille aciem instruit (Mur. 9), you arrange a case, 
he arrays an army. 

a. The Present, with expressions of duration of time, denotes 
an action continuing in the present, but begun in the past : as, 

patimur jam multos annos (Verr. vi. 48), we suffer now these many 
years (the perfect would mean we no longer suffer). 

anni sunt octo cum ista causa versatur (Clu. 30), it is now eight years 
that this case has been in hand. 

b. The present sometimes denotes an action not completed at 
all, but only attempted (Conative Present) : as, 

decerno quinquaginta dierum stipplicationes (Phil. xiv. 11), I move for 
fifty days' 1 thanksgiving. [Senatus decrevit, the senate ordained.'] 

c. The present, especially in colloquial language, is sometimes 
used for the Future : as, 

imusne sessum (De Or. iii. 5), shall we take a seat? 



196 Syntax of Tenses. 

ecquid me adjuvas ? (Clu. 26), won't you give me a little help ? 
in jus voco te. non eo. non is ? (PI. As. 480), I summon you to the 
court. I won't go. You won't? 

(See also under cum, antequam, dum, Chap. V.) 

d. The present in lively narrative is often used for the historical 
perfect {Historical Present) : as, 

affertur nuntius Syracusas ; curritur ad praetorium ; Cleomenes, 
quamquam nox erat, tamen in publico esse non audet ; includit se 
domi ( Verr. vi. 35), the news is brought to Syracuse ; they run to head- 
quarters ; Cleomenes ', though it was night ', does not venture to be abroad ; 
he shuts himself up at home. 

e. The present is regularly used with dum, while, though the 
time referred to is past : as, 

haec dum aguntur, interea Cleomenes jam ad Elori litus pervenerat 
(id.), while this is going on, Cleomenes meanwhile had come down to the 
coast at Eloru7n. 

Note. — When the time referred to is emphatically contrasted 
with so?ne other (usually in the sense so long as), the past tense 
must be used : as, nee enim dum eram vobiscum animum meum 
videbatis (Cat. M. 22). A few irregular cases of dum with past 
tenses also occur (compare the passages) : as, 

coorta est pugna, par dum constabant ordines (Liv. xxii. 47), a con- 
flict began, well matched as long as the ranks stood firm. 

dum oculos hostium certamen averterat (id. xxxii. 24), while the 
struggle kept the eyes of the enemy twned away. 

dum unum adscendere gradum conatus est, venit in periculum (Mur. 
27 ), while he attempted to climb one step [in rank] he fell into da?zger. 

f. The present is regularly used of writers whose works are 
extant : as, 

Epicurus vero ea dicit (Tusc. ii. 7), but Epicwus says such things. 
apud ilium Ulysses lamentatur in vulnere (id. 21), in him [Sophocles] 
Ulysses bewails over his wound. 

Imperfect. 

277. The Imperfect denotes an action or a state con- 
tinued or repeated in past time : as, 

hunc audiebant antea (Man. 5), they used to hear him before. 
Socrates ita censebat itaque disseruit (Tusc. i. 30), Socrates thought so 
[habitually] and so he spoke [then]. 

Remark. — The imperfect represents a present transferred to past 
time ; and hence has all the meanings derived from the continuance of 
the action which the present has, but referred to past time (see details 
below). 



Imperfect, Future, Perfect, 197 

a. Hence the imperfect is used in Descriptions : as, 

erant omnino itinera duo . . . mons altissimus impendebat (B. G. i. 
6), there were in all two ways . . . a very high mountain overhung. 

b. The imperfect sometimes denotes an action continuing in the 

past but begun at some previous time (cf. 276. a): as, 

copias quas diu comparabant (Fam. i. 13), the forces which they had 
long been getting ready. 

c. The imperfect sometimes denotes an action merely begun or 
even intended, but never accomplished (compare 276. b) : as, 

in exsilium eiciebam quern jam ingressum esse in bellum videbam 

(Cat. ii. 6), was I seitding (i.e. trying to send) into exile one who I saw 

had already gone into war ? 
hunc igitur diem sibi proponens Milo, cruentis manibus ad ilia au- 

gusta centuriarum auspicia veniebat (Mil. 16), was Milo coming (i.e. 

was it likely that he would come), &c. ? 
si licitum esset veniebant (Verr. vi. 49), they were coming if it had 

been allowed. 

d. The imperfect is sometimes used to express a certain sur- 
prise at the present discovery of a fact already existing : as, 

O tu quoque hie aderas, Phormio (Ter. Ph. v. 6), 01 you are here 
too, Phormio. 

ehem pater mi, tu hie eras ? (PL id. v. 7), what! you here, father ? 
ah miser ! quanta laborabas Charybdi (Hor. Od. i. 27), unhappy boy, 
what a whirlpool you are struggling i?i [and I never knew it] ! 

e. The imperfect is often used in narration by the comic poets, 
where later writers would employ the perfect : as, 

ad amicum Calliclem quoi rem aibat mandasse hie suam (Trin. 956), 
to his friend Callicles, to whom, he said, he had intrusted his property. 

praesagibat animus frustra me ire quom exibam domo (Aul. 222), 
my mind mistrusted when I went from home that I went in vain. 

/. The imperfect Indicative, in apodosis contrary to fact, regu- 
larly refers to present time (see 308. b). 

Future. 

278. The Future denotes an action or state that will 
occur hereafter. 

a. The Future sometimes has the force of an Imperative (see 
269. /). 

b. The Future requires to be expressed in subordinate clauses, 
where in English it is commonly expressed only in the principal 
clause : as, 

cum aderit videbit, when he is there he will see. 

sanabimur si volemus (Tusc. iii. 6), we shall be healed if we wish. 



198 Syntax of Tenses. 

The Tenses of Completed Action. 

279. The Perfect definite denotes an action as now 
completed : the Perfect historical, as having taken place 
indefinitely in past time : as, 

ut ego feci, qui Graecas litteras senex didici (CM. 8), as I have done, 
who have learned Greek in my old age. 

tantum bellum extrema hieme apparavit, ineunte vere suscepit, media 
aestate confecit (Man. 12), so great a war he made ready for at the 
end of winter, undertook in early spring, and finished by midsummer. 

a. The perfect is sometimes used emphatically to denote that 
something no longer exists : as, 

fuit ista quondam in hac re publica virtus (Cat. i. 1), there was once 

such virtue in this commonwealth. 
habuit, non habet (Tusc. i. 36), he had, he has no longer. 

b. The perfect is sometimes used of indefinite time in connec- 
tion with a general present : as, 

qui in compedibus corporis semper fuerunt, etiam cum soluti sunt 
tardius ingrediuntur (Tusc. i. 31), they who have always been in 
fetters of the body, even when released move more slowly. 

This is especially common in Conditions. 

c. The perfect is sometimes used of a general truth, especially 
with negations (Gnotnic Perfect) : as, 

qui studet contingere metam multa tulit fecitque (Hor. A. P. 412), 
he who aims to reach the goal, first bears and does many things. 

non aeris acervus et auri deduxit corpore febres (id. Ep. i. 2), the 
pile of brass and gold re?noves not fever from the frame. 

d. The perfect is often used in expressions containing or im- 
plying a negation, where in affirmation the imperfect would be 
preferred : as, 

dicebat melius quam scripsit Hortensius (Or. 38), Hortensius spoke 
better than he wrote. [Here the negative is implied in the com- 
parison : compare the use of quisquam, ullus, &c., and the French 
ne after comparatives and superlatives]. 

Remark. — The Perfect and Pluperfect of a few verbs are 

equivalent to the Present and Imperfect of kindred verbs : novi, 

I know j odi (osus), I hate j memini, I 'rente 'tttber j cognoveram, 

/ knew j venerat (=aderat), he was at hand : as, 

qui dies aestus maximos efficere consuevit (B. G. iv. 29), which day 
generally makes the highest tides. 

cujus splendor obsolevit (Quinc. v. 18), whose splendor is ncnv out 
of date. 

Many other verbs are occasionally so used : as, dum oculos cer- 
tamen averterat (= tenebat. Li v. xxxii. 24). 



Tenses of the Subjunctive. 199 

280. The Pluperfect is used to denote an action com- 
pleted in time past ; sometimes, also, repeated in indefi- 
nite time : as, 

neque vero cum aliquid mandaverat confectum putabat (Cat. iii. 7), 
for when he had given a thing in charge he did not look on it as done. 

quae si quando adepta est id quod ei fuerat concupitum, turn fert 
alacritatem (Tusc. iv. 15), //* it [desire] ever has gained what it had 
desired, then it produces joy. 

281. The Future Perfect denotes an action as com- 
pleted in the future : as, 

ut sementem feceris, ita metes (Or. ii. 65), as you sow, so shall you 
reap. 

Remark. — The Future Perfect is used (as above) with much greater 
exactness in Latin than in English, and may even be used instead of 
the Future, from the fondness of the Latins for representing an action 
as completed : as, 

quid inventum sit paulo post videro (Acad. ii. 24), what has been 
found out I will see presently. 

ego certe meum onicium praestitero (B. G. iv. 5), I at least will have 
done my duty. 

Epistolary Tenses. 

282. In Letters, the perfect {historical) or imperfect 
may be used for the present, and the pluperfect . for 
past tenses, as if the letter were dated at the time it is 
supposed to be received: as, 

neque tamen, cum haec scribebam, eram nescius quantis oneribus 
premerere (Fam. v. 12), nor while I write this am I ignorant under 
what burdens you are weighed. 

ad tuas omnes [epistulas] rescripseram pridie (Att. ix. 10), / [have] 
answered all your letters yesterday. 

Tenses of the Subjunctive. 

283. The tenses of the Subjunctive denote Absolute 
time only in Independent Clauses. In these the Present 
always refers to future time ; the Imperfect to either past 
or present; the Perfect to either future or past; the 
Pluperfect always to past. 

284. In Dependent Clauses, the tenses of the Sub- 
junctive denote Relative time, not with reference to the 
speaker, but to the time of some other verb. 



200 Syntax of Tenses. 

Sequence of Tenses. 

285. The forms which denote Absolute time may be 
used in any connection. But those denoting Relative 
time follow special rules for the Sequence of Tenses. 
For this purpose, tenses are divided into two classes — 

i. Primary, including the Present, both Futures, and the Per- 
fect (definite). 

2. Secondary, including the Imperfect, the Perfect (historical), 
and the Pluperfect. 

286. In compound sentences, a Primary tense in the 
leading clause is followed by a Primary tense in the 
dependent clause ; and a Secondary tense is followed 
by a Secondary : as, 

scribit ut nos moneat, he writes to warn us. 

scribet ut nos nioneat, he wilt write to warn us. 

scribe (scribito) ut nos moneas, write that you may warn us. 

scripsit ut nos moneret, he wrote to warn us. 

scribit quasi oblitus sit, he writes as if he had forgotten. 

scripsit quasi oblitus esset, he wrote as if he had forgotten. 

rogo quid facturus sis, I ask what you are going to do. 

Remark. — The Rule appears in the following Diagram : — 

TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Primary. 

i. Action not complete (time rela- ) p RESENT . 
tively present or future). ) 



Secondary. 
Imperfect. 



2. Action complete (time relatively ) Perfect . Pluperfect. 

past). ) I 

In applying the rule for the Sequence of Tenses, consider (i) whether 
the leading verb is primary or secondary; (2) whether the dependent 
verb is required to denote complete action (i.e. relatively past), or in- 
complete (relatively present or future). By taking the corresponding 
tense, as given above, the correct usage will usually be found. 

Notice that the Future Perfect denotes relatively completed action, 
and hence is represented in the Subjunctive by the Perfect or Plu- 
perfect. 

287. In the Sequence of Tenses, the following points 
are to be observed : — 



Sequence of Tenses. 201 

a. The perfect definite is properly a primary tense ; but, as its 
action is (at least) commenced in past time, it is more commonly 
followed by secondary tenses : as, 

ut satis esset praesidii provisum est (Cat. ii. 12), provision has been 
made that there should be ample guard. 

adduxi hominem in quo satisfacere exteris nationibus possetis (Verr. 
i. 1), I have brought a ??ian in whose perso?i you can make satisfaction 
to foreign nations. 

tantum profecisse videmur ut a Graecis ne verborum quidem copia 
vineeremur (Cic), we seem to have advanced so far that even iji ful- 
ness of words we ARE not surpassed by the Greeks. 

b. The perfect subjunctive is regularly used to denote any past 

action (either as Perfect definite or historical) depending on a 

verb in a primary tense : as, 

ex epistulis intellegi licet quam frequens fuerit Platonis auditor 
(Or. 4), it may be understood from his letters how constant a hearer he 
was of Plato. 

c. In clauses of Result, the perfect subjunctive is very often 
(the present rarely) used after secondary tenses : as, 

Hortensius ardebat dicendi cupiditate sic ut in nullo unquam flagran- 
tius studium viderini (Brut. 88), Hortensius was so hot with desire 
of speaking that I have never seen a more bumi?ig ardor in any man. 

Siciliam Verres per triennium ita vexavit ac perdidit, ut ea restitui in 
antiquum statum nullo modo possit (Verr. i. 4), for three years 
Verres so racked and ruined Sicily ', that she can in no way be restored 
to her former state. [Here the present is used in describing a state 
of things actually existing.] 

Remark. — This construction gives more emphasis to the fact stated 
as a result ; while the regular one gives more prominence to the main 
clause. The perfect, thus used, can stand only for a perfect indicative, 
not an imperfect ; and, in general, the perfect is often represented by 
the perfect subjunctive, contrary to the general rule : as, 

Thorius erat ita non superstitiosus ut ilia plurima in sua patria et 
sacrificia et fana contemneret ; ita non timidus ad mortem ut in 
acie sit ob rem publicam interfectus (Fin ii. 20), Thorius was so 
little superstitious that he despised [contemnebat] the many sacrifices 
and shrines in his country, so little timorous about death that he was 
killed [interfectus est] in battle, in defence of the State. 

Zeno nullo modo is erat qui nervos virtutis inciderit [compare 
2 79» d\ '■> se d contra qui omnia in una virtute poneret (Acad. i. 10), 
Zeno was noway one to cut the sinews of virtue ; but one, oit the con- 
trary, who made everything depend on virtue alone. 

d. A general truth after a past tense follows the connection of 

tenses in Latin (though not usually in English) : as, 

ex his quae tribuisset sibi quam mutabilis esset reputabat (Q. C. iii. 
9), from what she [Fortune] had bestowed on him, he reflected how 
inconstant she is. 



202 Syntax of Tenses. 

ibi quantam vim ad stimulandos animos ira haberet apparuit (Liv. 
xxxiii. 37 '), here it appeared what power anger has to goad the mind. 

e. The historical present may be followed by either primary or 
secondary tenses, but more commonly by secondary : as, 

rogat ut curet quod dixisset (Quinct. 5), he asks him to attend to the 

thing he had spoken of. 
castella communit quo facilius prohiberi possent (B. G. i. 8), he 

strengthens the forts that they might be more easily kept off. 

f. When the secondary tenses of the subjunctive are used in 
protasis and apodosis, they may stand after any tense : as, 

quia tale sit, ut vel si ignorarent id homines, etc. (Fin. ii. 15), becaitse 
it is such that even if men were ignorant, &=c. 

g. The imperfect subjunctive, in protasis or apodosis, though 
referring to present time, is regularly followed by secondary 
tenses : as, 

si solos eos diceres miseros quibus moriendum esset, neminem exci- 
peres (Tusc. i. 5), if you called only those wretched who must die, you 
would except no one. 

h. After the present, when a past tense appears to be in the 
writer's thought, secondary tenses sometimes follow by a kind of 

Synesis : as, 

sed tamen ut scires haec tibi scribo (Fam. xiii. 47), but yet that you 
may know, I write thus [as if Epistolary Imperfect]. 

cujus praecepti tanta vis est ut ea non homini cuipiam sed Delphico 
deo tribueretur (Leg. i. 22), such is the force of this precept, that it 
was ascribed not to any man, but to the Delphic god [the precept was 
an old one]. 

Tenses of the Infinitive. 

288. The tenses of the Infinitive are present, past, or 
future, relatively to the time of the verb on which they 
depend : as, 

nostros non esse inferiores intellexit (B. G. ii. 8), he ascertained that 

our men were not inferior. 
quam Juno fertur terris magis omnibus coluisse (^En. i. 15), which 

Juno, 'tis said, cherished above all lands. 
sperant se maximum fructum esse capturos (Lael. 21), they hope they 

shall receive the greatest advantage. 

a. The present infinitive, after certain verbs in the past, must be 
rendered by the perfect infinitive in English : as, 

scire potuit (Milo, 17), he might have known. 

qui videbatur omnino mori non debuisse (Arch. 8), who seemed [one 
that] ought not to have died at all. 



Tenses of the Infinitive. 



203 



Remark. — This is most frequent with verbs of necessity, pro- 
priety, and possibility (potui, debui, oportuit). 

b. The perfect infinitive represents in Indirect Discourse any 
past tense of a finite mood. But the imperfect is sometimes 
represented by the present infinitive, — regularly after memini 
where the memory recalls the action, but not where it recalls the 
mere fact : 1 as, 

quis potest credere senatum putasse (Mil. 5), who can believe the Senate 
thought? [Dir. disc, putabat]. 

memini Catonem mecum disserere (Lael. 3), I remember Cato's dis- 
coursing with me (so dicere aiebat, De Or. ii. 3). 

meministis me ita distribuisse causam (Rose. Am. 42), you remember 
that I so laid out the case. 

c. Except in indirect discourse the present infinitive only is 

generally used, with no distinct reference to time : 

est adulescentis majores natu vereri (Off. i. 34), it is the duty of the 
young to reverence their elders. 

d. After verbs of wishing, necessity, and the like, the perfect 
passive infinitive is often used instead of the present : as, 

domestica curate levatum [esse] volo (Q. F. iii. 9), I wish you relieved 

of household care (compare I pray thee have me excused). 
quod jampridem factum esse oportuit (Cat. i. 2), which ought to have 
been done long ago (compare a). 

Remark. — In early Latin, and in Poetry, the perfect active is 

also used, and even after other verbs than those of wishing : as, 

commisisse cavet (Hor. A. P. 168), he is cautious of doing. 

haud equidem premendo alium me extulisse velim (Liv. xxii. 59), 
/ would not by crushing another exalt myself 

sunt qui nolint tetigisse (Hor. Sat. i. 2), there are those who would 

not touch. 
nollem dixisse (Verr. v. 20), 1 would not say. 

e. The perfect infinitive is used, especially by poets, to denote 
a completed action after verbs of Feeling ; also with satis est, 
satis habeo, melius est, contentus sum, and in a few other cases 
where this distinction is important : as, 

quiesse erit melius (Liv. iii. 48), it will be better to have kept quiet. 
non paenitebat intercapedinem scribendi fecisse (Fam. xvi. 21), I was 
not sorry to have made a respite of writing. 

pudet me . . . non praestitisse (id. xiv. 3), / am ashamed not to have 
shoivn. 



1 Compare Goodwin's Gr. Grammar, 203, n. i. 



i. Participles : 



204 Syntax of Participles. 

sunt quos curriculo pulverem Olympicum coilegisse juvat (Hor. Od. 
i. 1 ), there are those who delight , &*c. 

nil ego si peccem possum nescisse (Ov. Her. xvii. 47), if I go wrong, 
I cannot have done it in ignorance. 

f. The future infinitive is often expressed by fore (or futurum 
esse) ut — necessarily, where there is no supine stem : as, 

spero fore ut contingat id nobis (Tusc. i.), I hope that will be our 
happy lot. [But, sperat se posse (Mil. 12).] 

II. — Noun and Adjective Forms* 

The several Noun and Adjective forms associated with the Verb are 
employed as follows : — 

f Simple Predicate. 
Present and Perfect \ Periphrastic Perfect (passive). 
J Predicate of Circumstance. 
[ Descriptive (Indirect Discourse), 

Future \ P er ip nrasnc w i tn esse - 

I Periphrastic with fuz (= Pluperfect Subj.). 

(" as Descriptive Adjective. 
Gerundive < Periphrastic with esse. 

( of Purpose with certain verbs. 

( a. Genitive as Objective Genitive. 
2. Gerund or ! b. Dative, with Adjectives (of Fitness), Nouns, Verbs. 
Gerundive : J c. Accusative, with certain Prepositions. 

[ d. Ablative, of Means, Comparison, or with Prepositions. 

Supine * \ a ' former Supine (in urn), with Verbs of Motion. 

3' ' \b. Latter Supine (in u), chiefly with Adjectives. 

PARTICIPLES. 

289. The Participle expresses the action of the verb 
in the form of an Adjective ; but has a partial distinc- 
tion of tense, and generally governs the case of its 
verb. 

Distinctions of Tense. 

290. The Present participle denotes the action as 

not completed ; the Perfect as completed ; the Future 

as still to take place. 

a. The Present participle has several of the irregular uses of 
the present indicative (compare 276. b, c). 

quaerenti mihi jamdiu certa res nulla veniebat in mentem (Fam. iv. 

13), though I had long sought, no certain thing came to my mind. 
C. Flaminio restitit agrum Picentem dividend (Cat. M. 4), he resisted 

Flaminius when attempting to divide, &*c. 
iens in Pompeianum bene mane haec scripsi (Att. iv. 9), /write this 

when about going very early to my place at Pompeii. 



Participles : Adjective Use. 205 

b. The Perfect participle of a few deponent verbs is used nearly 
in the sense of a Present. Such are, regularly, ratus, solitus, 
veritus ; commonly, fisus, ausus, secutus, and occasionally others, 
especially in later writers : as, 

cohortatus milites docuit (B. C. iii. 80), encouraging the men, he 

showed, &°c. 
iratus dixisti (Mur. 30), you spoke in a passion. 
oblitus auspicia (Phil. i. 13), forgetting the auspices. 
insidias veritus (B. G. ii. ii), fearing ambuscade. 
imperio potitus (Liv. xxi. 2), holdi?tg the co??imand. 
ad pugnam congressi (id. iv. 10), meeting in fight. 
rem incredibilem rati (Sail. C. 48), thinking it incredible. 

c. The present participle, wanting in the Passive, is usually 
supplied by a clause with dum or cum ; rarely by the participle 
in dus : as, 

Die, hospe-s, Spartae, nos te hie vidisse jacentes, 

Dum Sanctis patriae legibus obsequimur. 
Tell it, stranger, at Sparta, that we lie here obedient to our country's 

sacred laws. [Here dum obsequi?nur is a translation of the Greek 

ireido/Aeuoi.] 
crucibus adfixi aut flammandi (Ann. xv. 44), crucified or set on fire 

(in flames : compare note 3 under 296). 

d. The perfect active participle (which was lost in Latin except 
in deponents) is supplied either by the Ablative Absolute with 
change of voice (255, Note), or by a clause with cum or dum. 
The perfect participle of several deponents may be either active 
or passive (see 135. b). 

Adjective Use. 

291. The present and perfect participles are used 
sometimes as attributes, nearly like adjectives: as, 

cum antiquissimam sententiam turn comprobatam (Div. i. 5), a view 

at once most ancient and approved. 
signa nunquam fere ementientia (id. 9), signs hardly ever deceitful. 
auspiciis utuntur coactis (id. 15), they use forced auspices. 

a. Participles often become complete adjectives, and may be 
compared as such, or used, like other adjectives, as nouns : as, 

sibi indulgentes et corpori deservientes (Leg. i. 13), the self indulgent, 

and slaves to the body. 
recte facta paria esse debent (Par. iii. 1), right deeds ought to be like in 

value (see 207. c). 
male parta male dilabuntur (Phil. ii. 27), ill got, ill spe7tt. 
consuetudo valentis (De Or. ii. 44), the habit of a man in health. 



206 Syntax of Participles. 

b. A participle may, like a predicate adjective, be connected 
with a noun by esse or any similar verb : as, 

Gallia est omnis divisa (B. G. i. i), all Gaul is divided. 

locus qui nunc saeptus est (Liv. i. 8), the place which is now enclosed. 

videtis ut senectus sit operosa et semper agens aliquid et moliens 

(Cat. M. 8), you see how busy old age is, always aiming and trying at 

something. 

Remark. — From the predicate use arise the compound tenses of the 
passive, — the participle of completed action with the incomplete tenses 
of esse developing the idea of past time : as, interfectus est, he was 
(or has been) killed, lit., he is having- been- killed [i.e., already slain]. In the 
best writers (as Cicero), the perfect participle, when used with fui, &c, 
retains its proper force ; but in later writers the two sets of tenses (as, 
amatus sum or f ui) are often used indiscriminately to form periphrastic 
tenses in the passive : as, 

[leges] cum quae latae sunt turn vero quae promulgatae fuerunt (Sest. 
25), the laws, both those which were proposed, and those which were 
published. [The proposal of the laws was a single act : hence latae 
sunt is a pure perfect. The publishing, or posting, was a continued 
state, which is indicated by promulgatae, and fuerunt is the pure 
perfect.] 

arma quae fixa in parietibus fuerant, humi inventa sunt (Div. i. 34), 
the arms which had been fastened on the walls were found upon the 
ground. [Compare occupati sunt et f tier unt (Off. i. 17) : the differ- 
ence between this and the preceding is, that occupatus can be used 
only as an adjective.] 

Predicate Use. 

292. The Present and Perfect participles are often 
used as a predicate, where in English a clause would be 
used to express time, cause, occasion, condition, concession, 
characteristic, manner, circumstance : as, 

vereor ne turpe sit dicere incipientem (Mil. 1), I fear it may be a dis- 
honor [to me] zuhen beginning to speak. 

salutem insperantibus reddidisti (Marc. 7), you have restored a safety 
which we did not hope. 

nemo ei neganti non credidisset (Mil. 19), no one would have disbelieved 
him when he denied. 

Remark — This use is especially frequent in the Ablative Absolute. 
A co-ordinate clause is sometimes compressed into a perfect participle ; 
and a participle with a negative expresses the same idea which in Eng- 
lish is given by without : as, 

imprudentibus nostris (B. G. v. 15), while our men were not looking. 

miserum est nihil proficientem angi (N. D. iii. 5), it is wretched to vex 
one's self without effecting anything. 



Participles : Predicate Use. 



207 



instructos ordines in locum aequum deducit (Sail. C. 59), he draws up 

the lines, and leads them to Iroel ground. 
ut hos transductos necaret (B. G. v. 5), that he might carry the?n over 

and put thein to death. 

a. A noun and passive participle are often so united that the 
participle and not the noun contains the main idea : l as, 

ante conditam condendamve urbem (Liv. Pref.), before the city was 
built or building. 

illi libertatem civium Romanorum imminutam non tulerunt ; vos vi- 
tam ereptam negligetis (Manil. 5), they did not endure the infringemeiit 
of the citizens'* liberty ; will you disregard the destruction of their life ? 

b. The participle with a noun in agreement, or in the neuter as 
an abstract noun, is used in the ablative with opus (need) : as, 

opus est viatico facto (Plaut. Trin. ), there is need of laying in provision. 
maturato opus est (Liv. viii. 13), there is need of haste. 

c. The perfect participle with habeo (rarely with other verbs) 
is almost the same in meaning as a perfect active, but denotes the 
continued effect of the verb : 2 as, 

fidem quern habent spectatam jam et diu cognitam (Div. C. 4), my 

fidelity, which they have proved and lo?ig known. 

d. The perfect participle, with verbs of effecting, effort, or the 
like ; also with volo where esse may be understood, expresses 
more forcibly the idea of the verb : as, 

praefectos suos multi missos fecerunt (Verr. iv. 58), many discharged 

their officers. 
hie transactum reddet omne (Capt. 345), he will get it all done. 
me excusatum volo (Verr. i. 40), I wish to be excused (compare I pray 

thee have me excused) . 

e. The present participle is sometimes nearly equivalent to an 
infinitive, but expresses the action more vividly after verbs of 
sense, also facio, induco, and the like used of authors : as, 

Xenophon facit Socratem disputantem (N. D. i. 11), Xenophon repre- 
sents Socrates disputing. 

Future Participle. 

293. The Future Participle (except futurus and ven- 
tums) is rarely used in simple agreement with a noun, 
except by later writers. 

1 Compare the participle in indirect discourse in Greek (G. 2S0) ; and the Eng- 
lish, " 'Twas at the royal feast for Persia won " (Dryden), i. e. for the conquest 
of Persia. 

2 The perfect with have, in modern languages, has grown out of this use of 
habeo. 



208 Syntax of Participles, 

a. The future participle is chiefly used with esse in a periphras- 
tic conjugation (see page yy) : as, 

morere, Diagora, non enim in caelum adscensurus es (Tusc. i. 46), 
die, for you are not likely to rise to heaven. 

sperat adolescens diu se victurum (Cat. M. 19), the young man hopes 
to live long. 

neque petiturus unquam consulatum videretur (Off. iii. 20), and seemed 
unlikely ever to be a candidate for the consulship. 

b. By later writers the future participle is also used in simple 

agreement to express likelihood, purpose, or even an apodosis : 

as, 

cum leo regem invasurus incurreret (Q. C. viii. 1), when a lion rushed 
on to attack the king. 

rediit belli casum de integro tentaturus (Liv. xvii. 62), he returned to 
try the chances of war anew. 

ausus est rem plus famae habituram (id. ii. 10), he dared a thing which 
would have more repute. 

dispersos per agros milites equitibus invasuris (id. xxxi. 36), while the 
horse were ready to attack the soldiers scattered through the fields (a 
rare use of the Ablative Absolute). 

c. With past tenses of esse, the future participle is often equiv- 
alent to the pluperfect subjunctive (see 308. d) : as, 

conclave illud ubi erat mansurus si ire perrexisset (Div. i. 15), that 
chamber where he would have stayed if he had persisted in going. 

quid facturi fuistis (Lig. 8), what were you going to do? [= quid 
fecissetis ; which would be logically followed by si venissetis, 6°<r.]. 

Gerundive. 

294. The Gerundive, in its participial or adjective use, 
denotes necessity or propriety. 

Note. — The participle in dus has two distinct uses, viz., 1. the Pre- 
dicate (participial or adjective) use, in which it is always passive ; 2. the 
Gerundive use (see 295), in which it is always active in meaning, having 
for its apparent Object the noun with which it agrees in form. In the 
latter, it is exactly equivalent to the Gerund — which is its neuter used 
impersonally — governing the noun as direct object. 

a. The gerundive is sometimes used, like the present and perfect 
participles, in simple agreement with a noun : as, 

fortem et conservandum virum (Mil. 3$), a brave man, and wo7'thy to 
be preserved. 

b. The most frequent use of the gerundive is with esse in a 
second periphrastic conjugation (p. yy) : as, 

non agitanda res erit (Verr. vi. 70), will not the thing have to be agi- 
tated ? 



Gerund and Gerundive. 209 

c. The neuter of the gerundive 1 is occasionally (chiefly in early 
Latin) used with the case of its verb. In this use it is regular with 
utor, fruor, &c, governing the ablative : as, 

agitandumst vigilias (PL Tr. 869), I have got to stand guard. 

via quam nobis ingrediendum sit (C. M. 2), the way we have to enter, 

utendum exercitationibus modicis (id. 11), we must use moderate exer- 
cise. 

legibus parendum est, the laws must be obeyed. 

juveni parandum, seni utendum est (Sen. Ep. 36), it is for the young 
to get, for the old to enjoy. 

d. The gerundive is used to denote Purpose after verbs signi- 
fying to give, deliver, agree for, have, receive, undertake, demand : 2 
as, 

redemptor qui columnam illam conduxerat faciendam (Div. ii. 21), 

the contractor who had undertaken to make that column [the regular 

construction with this class of verbs], 
aedem Castoris habuit tuendam (Verr. ii. 50), he had the temple of 

Castor to take care of. 
naves atque onera diligenter adservanda curabat (id. vi. 56), he took 

care that the ships and cargoes should be kept. 

GERUND. 

295. The Gerund is a verbal noun, governing the same 
case as its verb, but governed itself like a noun : as, 

ars bene disserendi et vera ac falsa dijudicandi (De Or. ii. 38), the art 
of discoursing well, and distinguishing the true and false. [Here the 
verbal nouns discoursing and distinguishing, if used in the nomina- 
tive, would be expressed by the infinitive disserere and dijudicare.] 

Remark. — The use of the Gerund, in the oblique cases, corresponds 
to the use of the Infinitive as Subject (see 273), its nominative form 
being found only in the impersonal use of the participle in dus. 

296. When the Gerund would have an object in the 
accusative, the Gerundive 3 is generally used instead, 
agreeing with the noun, and in the case which the gerund 
would have had : as, 

1 Sometimes called Nominative of the Gerund. (Compare Greek verbal in re'os, 
G. 281.) 

2 Such verbs are accipio, adnoto, attribuo, conduco, euro, denoto, deposco, do, 
divido, edico, edoceo, fero, habeo, loco, mando, obicio, permitto, peto, pono, praebeo, 
propono, relinquo, rogo, suscipio, trado, voveo. 

3 The gerundive construction is probably the original one. The participle in 
dus seems to have had a present passive force as in sectindus (from sequor), 



2IO Gerundive Constructions. 

paratiores ad omnia pericula subeunda (B. G. i. 5), readier to undergo 
all dangers. [Here subeunda agrees with pericula^ which is itself 
governed by ad: the construction with the gerund would be, ad 
subeundum pericula ; ad governing the gerund, and the gerund 
governing the accusative pericula] 

exercendae memoriae gratia (Off. i. 15), for the sake of training the 
memory. [Here the gerund construction would be, exerceudi memo- 
riam.] 

These forms may be seen in the following : — 
Gen. consilium { S£" c ^£ } a <***» °f takin S the <»»• 
DAT. dat operam { afris^Tlendis \ he attendea ' t0 tiuin S the fields. 
Ace. veniunt ad j £££ £££ } ** <°™ *> ***"" 

Abl. terit tempus j ^££ epTstoS } he s P ends time in writin S htters - 

Remark. — The verbs utor, fruor, &c, are treated like verbs gov- 
erning the Accusative, as they do in early Latin : as, 

expetuntur divitiae ad perfruendas voluptates (Off. i. 8), riches are 
soitght for the enjoyment of pleasure. 

Gerundive Constructions. 

297. The Gerund and the Gerundive are used, in the 
oblique cases, in some of the constructions of nouns. 

298. The Genitive is used after nouns or adjectives 
in the constructions of the objective genitive ; more 
rarely in the predicate after esse: as, 

neque consilii habendi neque arma capiendi spatio dato (B. G. iv. 14), 
time being given neither for forming plans nor for taking arms [object- 
ive genitive after spatio']. 

ne conservandae quidem patriae causa (Off. i, 45), not even in order to 
save the country. 

vivendi finis est optimus (Cat. M. 20), it is the best end of life. 

non tarn commutandarum rerum quam evertendarum cupidos (id. ii. 
I ), desirous not so much of changing as of destroying the state. 



rotundus, volvenda dies (Virg.), flammandi (Tac. ), from which the idea of 
necessity was developed through that of futurity, as in the development of the 
subjunctive. Consiliuin urbis delendae would have meant a plan of a city being 
destroyed [in process of destruction], then about to be destroyed, then to be 
destroyed, then a plan of destroying the city, the two words becoming fused 
together as in ab urbe coiidiia. The gerund is simply an impersonal use of the 
participle, in its original present sense, retaining the case of its verb, the same as 
in agitandum est vigilias ; quid opus est facto ? 



Gerundive Constructions, 2 1 1 

Remark. — In the predicate use of the genitive, it nearly or quite 
acquires the meaning of Purpose : as, 

quae res vertendae reipublicae solent esse (Verr. iii. 53), which things 
generally tend to the overthrow of the commonwealth. 

si arborum trunci deiciendi operis essent missae (B. G. iv. 17), in case 
trunks of trees should be sent down [with the object] of setting the 
work adrift 

cognoscendae antiquitatis (Tac. Ann. ii. 59), to study old times, 

a. The genitive of the Gerund is, in a few cases, used (like a 
noun) with the genitive of an object agreeing neither in gender 
nor number : as, 

ejus videndi cupidus (Ter. Hec), eager to see her. 

reiciendi trium judicum potestas (Inv. ii. 2), the power of challenging 
three jurors. 

sui colligendi facultas (B. G. iii. 6), the opportunity to recover them- 
selves. [Here sui, though referring to a plural subject, is really 
the genitive singular neuter of suus.] 

b. In the genitive of gerundive constructions the Gerund and 
Gerundive are about equally common. 

299. The Dative is used after the adjectives (and 
rarely nouns) which are followed by the dative of 
nouns : as, 

genus armorum aptum tegendis corporibus (Liv. xxxii. 10), a sort of 
armor suited to the defence of the body. 

te sociam studeo scribendis versibus esse (Lucr. i. 25), / desire that 
thou (Venus) be my partner in writing verses. 

a. The dative is used also in a few expressions after verbs : as, 

reliqua tempora demetiendis fructibus et percipiendis accommodata 
sunt (Cat. M. 19), the other seasons are fitted to reap and gather in the 
harvest. 

diem praestitit operi faciendo (Verr. ii. 56), he appointed a day for 

■ the work. 



praeesse agro colendo (Rose. Am. 18), to take charge of tillage. 
esse solvendo, to be able to pay. 

b. The dative is also used in certain phrases belonging to the 
civil law, after nouns meaning officers, offices, elections, &c. : as, 

comitia consulibus rogandis (Div. i. 17), elections for nominating 

consuls. 
triumvirum coloniis deducundis (Jug. 42), a triumvir for planting 

colonies. 



212 Gerund a,7id Supine. 

300. The Accusative is used after the prepositions 
ad y inter, circa, ob (rarely in and ante) ; most frequently 
after ad, denoting Purpose : as, 

vivis non ad deponendam sed ad confirmandam audaciam (Cat. i. 2), 

you live, not to put off, bid to confirm your daring. 
inter agendum (Eel. ix. 24), while driving. 
me vocas ad scribendum (Or. 10), you summon me to write. 
nactus aditus ad ea conanda (B. C. i. 31), having found means to 

tendertake these things. 

301. The Ablative is used to express Manner, 1 Means, 
or Instrument, and after Comparatives ; and after the 
prepositions ab } de, ex, in, and (rarely) pro and cum: as, 

multa pollicendo persuadet (Jug. 46), he persuades by large promises. 

his ipsis legendis (Cat. M. 7), by reading these very things. 

nullum officium referenda gratia magis necessarium est (Off. i. 15), 

no duty is more important than repaying favors. 
in re gerenda versari (Cat. M. 6), to be employed in affairs. 

Latine loquendo cuivis par (Brut. 34), equal to any man in speaking 
Latin. 

nullis virtutis praeceptis tradendis (Off. i. 2), without delivering any 
precepts of virtue. 

obscuram atque humilem conciendo ad se multitudinem (Liv. i. 8), 
calliitg to them a mean and obscure multitude. 

Remark. — The gerund is occasionally found in apposition 
with a noun : as, 

ad res diversissimas, parendum atque imperandum (Livy, xxi. 3), 
for the most widely different things obeyifig a)id commanding. 

SUPINE. 

Note. — The supine is a verbal abstract of the fourth declen- 
sion, having no distinction of tense or person, and is limited to 
two uses. The form in um is the accusative of the end of motion. 
The form in u is probably dative of purpose, though possibly the 
ablative has been confused with it. 

302. The Former Supine (in um) is used after verbs 
of motion to express the purpose of the motion ; it gov- 
erns the case of its verb : as, 



1 In this use the ablative of the gerund is, in later writers, nearly equivalent 
to a present participle. From the ablative of manner comes the Italian and 
Spanish form of the participle, the true participial form becoming an adjective. 



The Supine. 



213 



quid est, imusne sessum ? etsi monitum venimtis te, non flagitatum 
(De Or. iii. 5), how now, shall we be seated? though we have come to 
remind not to entreat you. 

nuptum collocasse (B. G. i. 18), to establish in marriage. 

venerunt questum injurias (Liv. iii. 25), they came to complain of 
wrongs. 

Remark. — The supine in um is used especially after eo ; and 
with the passive infinitive iri forms the future infinitive passive : as, 

fuere cives qui rempublicam perditum irent (Sail. C. 36), there were 
citizens who went about to ruin the republic (compare 258. Rem.). 

non Grais servitum matribus ibo (JEn. ii. 786), I shall not go to be a slave 
to the Grecian dames. 

si scisset se trucidatum iri (Div. ii. 9), if he [Pompey] had known that 
he was going to be murdered. 

303. The latter Supine (in u) x is used only with a 
few adjectives, with the nouns fas, nefas, and opus, and 
rarely with verbs, to denote an action in reference to 
which the quality is asserted : as, 

O rem non modo visu foedam, sed etiam auditu (Phil. ii. 25), a thing 

not only shocking to see, but even to hear of. 
quaerunt quid optimum factu sit (Verr. ii. 27), they ask what is 

best to do. 
humanum factu aut inceptu (Andr. 236), a human thing to do or 

undertake. 
si hoc fas est dictu (Tusc. v. 13), if this is lawful to say. 
pudet dictu (Agric. 32), it is shame to tell. 

Remark. — The supine in u is found especially with such adjectives 
as indicate an effect on the senses or the feelings, and those which 
denote ease, difficulty, and the like. But with facilis, difficilis, jucundus, 
the construction of ad with the gerund is more common. The Infini- 
tive is often used in the same signification, by the poets, with all these 
adjectives. 



1 The only latter supines in common use are auditu, dictu, factu, inventu, me- 
moratu, nahi, visu. In classic use it is found, in all, in twenty-four verbs. It is 
never followed by an object-case. 



214 Conditional Sentences. 



Chapter IV. — Conditional Sentences. 

Note. — The Conditional Sentence differs from other compound sen- 
tences in this, that the form of the main clause (apodosis) is determined 
in some degree by the nature of the subordinate clause (protasis), upon 
the truth of which the whole statement depends. Like all compound 
sentences, however, it has arisen from putting together two independ- 
ent statements, which in time became so closely united as to make one 
modified statement. Thus — Speak the word: my servant shall be 
healed is an earlier form of expression than If thou speak the word. The 
Conditional Particles were originally independent pronouns : thus si is 
a weak demonstrative of the same origin as sic (si-ce like hi-ce), and 
has the primitive meaning of in that way, or in some zvay. In its origin 
the Condition was of two kinds. Either it was assumed and stated as 
a fact, or it was expressed as a mild command. From the first have 
come all the uses of the Indicative in protasis ; from the latter all the 
uses of the Subjunctive in protasis. The Apodosis has either the 
Indicative expressing the conclusion as a fact ; and the Present and 
Perfect Subjunctive, expressing it originally as future — hence more or 
less doubtful — or the Imperfect and Pluperfect as futurum in prceterito, 1 
and so unfulfilled in the present or past. Thus rides, majore cachinno 
concutitur is the original form for the Indicative in protasis and apodo- 
sis ; si rides only means " in some way or other,'"' &c. So roges Aristonem, 
neget is the original form of the subjunctive in protasis and apodosis ; si 
roges would mean "ask in some way or other." The imperfect rogares 
transfers the command to past time, 2 with the meaning " suppose you 
had asked/' and si would have the same meaning as before ; while negaret 
transfers the future idea of neget to past time, and means " he was going 
to deny.'' Now the stating of this supposition at all gives rise to the 
implication that it is untrue in point of fact, — because, if it were true, 
there would ordinarily be no need to state it as a supposition : it would 
then be a simple fact, put in the indicative. 3 Such a condition or 



1 The futurum hi prccterito is a tense relatively future to a time absolutely 
past, expressing a future act transferred to the point of view of past time, and 
hence is naturally expressed by a past tense of the Subjunctive : thus dixisset = 
dicturus fuit. As that which looks towards the future from some point in the 
past has a natural limit in present time, such a tense (imperfect subjunctive) came 
naturally to be used to express a present condition purely ideal, that is to say, 
contrary to fact. 

2 Compare potius diceret, "he should rather have said" (266. e). 

3 There are, however, some cases in which this implication does not arise : as, 
decies centena dedisses, nil erat in locidis (Hor. Sat. i. 3, 15). 



Protasis and Apodosis, 215 

conclusion — originally past, meaning suppose yoit had asked [yesterdayj 
he was going to de?iy — came to express an unfulfilled condition in the 
present ; just as in English ought, which originally meant owed, 1 has 
come to express a present obligation. 

Conditional Sentences may be classified as follows : — 

1. Simple Present or Past Conditions, nothing implied as to fulfilment : 

Indicative, Present or Past, 

-c „„^ p rt M„,^ rt xr, . ( a ' More vivid (probable) : Future Indicative. 

2. Future Conditions : { K Less vivid (i {; probab j e) . Presenf Subjunctive. 

3. Conditions Contrary { a. Present : hnperfect Subjunctive, 

to Fact : / b. Past : Pluperfect Subjunctive. 

( a. Indefinite : 2d person, Subjunctive. 

4. General Conditions : \ b. Repeated Action : Imperfect or Pluperfect with 

( Indicative in Apodosis. 

-r^. • , ( in clause of Fact, Wish, Command. 
a. Disguised J [n Participial Expression. 

t r\ ■ 4. j i Potential Subjunctive. 
[ b ' 0mitted j Subjunctive of Modesty. 

Protasis and Apodosis. 

304. In a Conditional Sentence the clause containing 
the condition is called the Protasis ; and that contain- 
ing the conclusion is called the Apodosis : as, 

si qui exire volunt [protasis] conivere possum [apodosis], (Cat. ii. 12), 
if any wish to depart, I can keep my eyes shut. 

a. The Protasis is regularly introduced by the conditional par- 
ticle si (if) or one of its compounds. 

Note. — These compounds are sin, nisi, etiamsi, etsi, tametsi, 
tamenetsi (see Conditional and Concessive Particles, 155. d, f). 
An Indefinite Relative, or any relative or concessive word, may 
also serve to introduce a conditional clause (see 316). 

b. The Apodosis — except in some forms of General Condition 
— regularly corresponds in Mood with the Protasis : as, 

si mones audit, if you advise, he hears. 
si monebis audiet, if you advise, he zvill hear. 
si moneas audiat, if you should [hereafter] advise he would hear. 
si moneres audiret, if you were notv advising he wozdd hear. 
si monuisses audivisset, if you had [before] advised he would have 
heard. 

Note. — The apodosis is often introduced by some correlative 
word or phrase : as, sic, ita, turn, ea condicione, etc. 



1 " There was a certain lender which ought him five hundred pieces." — Tyn- 
dale'sN. T. 



§59 
1. b 



216 Conditional Sentences. 

c. The Apodosis, being the principal clause of its own sentence, 
may depend in form on the grammatical structure of the main sen- 
tence, and so require a Participle, an Infinitive, or a Phrase : as, 

quod si praeterea nemo sequatur, tamen se cum sola decima legione 
iturum (B. G. i. 40), but if no one else would follow, he would go with 
the tenth legion alo?ie. 

si quos adversum proelium commoveret, hos reperire posse (id.), if 
the loss of a battle alarmed any, they might f?td, 6°<r. 

sepultura quoque prohibituri, ni rex humari jussisset (Q. C. viii. 2), 
intending also to deprive hi7n of burial, unless the king had ordered him 
to be i7iterred. 

Note. —When the Apodosis is itself in Indirect Discourse, or 
in any dependent construction, the verb of the Protasis (as in the 
first two of the above examples) is always in the Subjunctive (see 
337, P- 250). 

d. A Particular Condition is one which refers to a definite act 
or series of acts occurring at some definite time ; a General Con- 
dition refers to any one of a class of acts which may occur (or may 
have occurred) at any time. 1 

Classification. 

305. The principal or typical Forms of conditional 
sentences may be exhibited as follows : — 

a. Simple Condition, nothing being implied as to fulfilment 
(Indicative Mood) : — 

1. Present : si adest bene est, if he is [now] here it is well. 

2. Past : si aderat bene erat, if he was [then] here it was well. 

b. Future Condition, necessarily as yet unfulfilled : — 

1. More vivid (probable) : si aderit bene erit, if he is [shall be] 

here it will be well. 

2. Less vivid (probable): si adsit 2 bene sit, if he should [here- 

after] be here it would be well. 



1 These two classes of conditions are distinguished logically ; and in most lan- 
guages are also distinguished grammatically, — but only as to Present and Past 
Conditions. In Latin, in particular cojtditions, present or past tenses of the In- 
dicative are regularly used in Protasis, where no opinion is intimated of its truth 
or falsity ; and the Apodosis may take any form of the verb which can be used in 
an independent sentence. In general conditions (or at least what would be such 
in Greek), also, referring to Present or Past time, the Indicative is for the most 
part used both in Protasis and Apodosis. (Compare Goodwin's Greek Grammar, 
§ 220.) 

2 Corresponding to the Greek Optative. 









Forms of Conditions. 217 

c. Condition contrary to fact, unfulfilled in present or past (im- 
perfect and pluperfect Subjunctive) : — 

1. Present, si adesset 1 bene esset, if he were [now J here it would 

be well. 

2. Past, si adfuisset 2 bene fuisset, if he had [then] been here it 

would have been well. 

d. General condition : — 

1 . Indefinite, si hoc dicas 3 creditur, if one says this it is [always] 

believed. 

2. Repeated, si quid diceret 4 credebatur, if [whenever] he said 
any thing ( = whatever he said) it was believed (a late use). 

Remark. — The use of tenses in Protasis is very loose in English. 
Thus if he is alive now is a present condition, to be expressed in Latin 
J by the Present Indicative ; if he is alive next year is a FUTURE condition, 
and would be expressed by the Future Indicative. Again, if he were here 
now is a present condition contrary to fact, and would be expressed by 
the Imperfect Subjunctive ; if he were to see hie thus is a future con- 
dition, to be expressed by the Present Subjunctive ; and so too, if you 
advised him he would attend may be future. 

jl 

Simple Conditions. 

306. In the statement of a condition whose falsity is 
not implied, the present and past tenses of the Indica- 
tive are used in Protasis ; the apodosis expressing the 
result in any grammatical form required : as, 

si tu exercitusque valetis, bene est (Fam. v. 2), if you and the army are 
well it is well. 

si justitia vacat, in vitio est (Off. i. 19), if justice be wanting it [bravery] 
is in fault. 

si placet . . . videamus (Cat. M. 5), if you please, let us see. 
fuerit hoc censoris, si judicabat (Div. i. 16), grant that it was the 
censor's duty in case he judged it false. 

Future Conditions. 

307. A Future condition may either, 1. make a dis- 
tinct supposition of a future case, the apodosis expressing 
what will be the result ; or, 2. the supposition may be 
less distinct and vivid, the apodosis expressing what 
would be the result in the case supposed. 



1 Corresponding to the Greek Imperfect (Indicative), with av in apodosis. 

2 Corresponding to the Greek Aorist (Indicative), with av in apodosis. 

3 Corresponding to the Greek Subjunctive with av. 

4 Corresponding to the Greek Optative. 



21 8 Conditional Se?itences. 

a. If the condition is stated vividly, so as to be conceived as 
actually about to take place (English present indicative, rarely fut- 
ure with shall), the Future Indicative is used in both protasis 
and apodosis : as, 

sanabimur si volemus (Tusc. iii. 6), we shall be healed if we wish. 
quod si legere aut audire voletis . . . reperietis (Cat. M. 6), if you 
read or hear, you will find. 

b. The present subjunctive, in both protasis and apodosis, ex- 
presses a future condition less vividly, or as less probable, than 
when the future indicative is used (English should) : as, 

haec si tecum patria loquatur, nonne impetrare debeat (Cat. i. 8), 

if thy country should thus speak with thee, ought she not to prevail? 
quod si quis deus mini largiatur . . . valde recusem (Cat. M. 23), 
but if some god were to grant me this, I should stoutly refuse. 

Remark. — The present subjunctive sometimes stands tn protasis 
with the future in apodosis from a change in the point of view of the 
speaker. 1 

c. If the conditional act is regarded as completed before that 
of the apodosis begins, the Future Perfect is substituted for the 
future, and the Perfect subjunctive for the Present : as, 

sin cum potuero, non venero, turn erit inimicus (Att. ix. 2), but if I 

do not come when I can, he will be unfriendly. 
si non feceris, ignoscam (Fam. v. 19), if you do not do it I will excuse 

you. 

Remark. — This is a very common construction in Latin, owing 
to the tendency of the language to represent an action as completed, 
rather than as in progress. 

d. Any form denoting or implying future time may stand in the 
apodosis of a future condition (so the participles in dus and rus, 
and verbs of necessity, possibility, and the like) : as, 

non possum istum accusare si cupiam (Verr. v. 41), I camiot accuse 

him if I should desire. 
alius finis constituendus est si prius quid maxime reprehendere Scipio 

solitus sit dixero (Lael. 16), another limit must be set if I first state 

what Scipio was wont most to find f aid t with. 



1 It often depends entirely upon the view of the writer at the moment, and not 
upon the nature of the condition whether it shall be stated vividly or not ; as in the 
proverbial " If the sky falls we shall catch larks," the impossible condition is iron- 
ically put in the vivid form, to illustrate the absurdity of some other supposed 
condition stated by some one else. 



Conditions Contrary to Fact. 



219 



e. Rarely the perfect is used (rhetorically) in apodosis with a 
present or even future in protasis, representing the conclusion as 
already accomplished : as, 

si hoc bene fixum in animo est, vicistis (Liv. xxi. 44), if this is well 
fixed i?i your minds, you have conquered [for you will have conquered]. 

si eundem [animum] habueritis, vicimus (id. 43), if you shall have 
kept the same spirit, we have conquered. 

f. Frequently the present subjunctive of a future condition 
becomes imperfect by the sequence of tenses or some other cause 
(retaining the same force relatively to past time) : as, 

non poterat nisi vellet (B. C. iii. 44), was not able unless he wished (com- 
pare d, above). 

Caesar si peteret . . . non quicquam proficeret (Hor. Sat. i. 3), if 
even Ccesar were to ask he woidd gain nothing. [Here the construc- 
tion is not contrary to fact, but is simply si petat non proficiat, 
thrown into past time.] 

tumulus apparuit . . si luce palam iretur hostis praeventurus erat 
(Liv. xxii. 24), a hill appeared . . . if they shoidd go openly by light 
the enemy woidd prevent. [Independent of apparuit, this would be, 
si eatur, praeventurus est, for praeveniat.\ 

Conditions Contrary to Fact. 

308. In the statement of a supposition known to be 
false, the Imperfect and Pluperfect subjunctive are 
used, 1 — the imperfect referring to Present Time, the 
pluperfect to Past : as, 

quae si exsequi nequirem, tamen me lectulus oblectaret meus (Cat. 
M. 11), if I could not [now] follow this [an active life] yet my couch 
would afford me pleasure. 

nisi tu amisisses, nunquam recepissem (id. 4), unless you had lost it, 
I should not have recovered it. 

si meum consilium auctoritasque valuisset, tu hodie egeres, nos 
liberi essemus, respublica non tot duces et exercitus amisisset 
(Phil. ii. 15), if my judgment and authority had prevailed [as they did 
not], you woidd this day be a beggar, we should be free, and the republic 
woidd not have lost so many leaders and armies. 

qui nisi revertisset, in eo conclavi ei cubandum fuisset, quod proxima 
nocte conruit : ruina igitur oppressus esset ; at id neque si fatum 
fuerat effugisset, nee si non fuerat in eum casum incidisset (Div. 
ii. 8), if it had been decreed by fate, he would not have escaped, &Y. 
[The apodosis of fuerat is not effugisset, but the whole conditional 
sentence of which effugisset is the apodosis ; the real protasis of 
effugisset is revertisset, above.] 



1 The implication of falsity, in this construction, is not inherent in the Sub- 
junctive ; but comes from the transfer of a future condition to past time. Thus 
the time for the happening of the condition has, at the time of writing, already 



220 Conditional Sentences. 

a. In many cases the imperfect refers to past time, both in pro- 
tasis and apodosis, especially when a repeated or continued action 
is denoted, or when the condition if true would still exist : as, 

hie si mentis esset suae, ausus esset educere exercitum (Pis. 21), 
if he was of sane mind would he have dared to lead out the army ? 
[Here esset denotes a continued state, past as well as present.] 

non concidissent, nisi illud receptaculum classibus nostris pateret 
(Verr. ii. 1), [the power of Carthage] would not have fallen, unless 
that station had been open to our fleets (without the condition, patebat). 

Remark. — This necessarily arises from the fact that the pluperfect 
is equivalent to a future perfect in prceterito, and so represents the action 
as completed and momentary, rather than continuing. 

b. The past tenses of the Indicative in apodosis (after a Sub- 
junctive in protasis) may be used to express what ought to have 
been done, or is intended, or is already begun (see 311. c) : as, 

si Romae privatus esset hoc tempore, tamen is erat deligendus 
(Manil. 17), if he [Pompey] were at this time a private citizen in 
Ro?ne, yet he ought to be appointed. 

quod esse caput debebat si probari posset (Fin. iv. 9), what ought 

to be the main point if it coidd be proved. 
si licitum esset matres veniebant (Verr. vi. 49), the mothers were 

coming if it had been allowed (see 305. d*). 
in amplexus filiae ruebat, nisi lictores obstitissent (Ann. xvi. 32), 

he was about rushi?ig into his daughter's arms, unless the lictors had 

opposed. 

Remark. — In this use, the imperfect indicative corresponds in time 
to the imperfect subjunctive, and the perfect or pluperfect indicative to 
the pluperfect subjunctive. The tenses of the subjunctive may how- 
ever be used as well (see Note, above) : as, 

satius erat ( = esset), it were better. 

c. The use of the indicative in apodosis is regular with all verbs 
and expressions denoting the necessity, propriety, desirableness, 
duty, possibility, of an action, where it is implied that what was 
necessary, &c, has not been done! It is sometimes carried still 
further in poetry : as, 

nam nos decebat lugere (Tusc. i. 47), it would befit us to mottrn. 
si non alium jactaret odorem, laurus erat (Georg. ii. 133), it were a 
laurel, but for giving out a different odor. 



passed ; so that, if the condition remains a condition, it must be contrary to fact. 
So past forms implying a future frequently take the place of the subjunctive in apo- 
dosis in this construction (see d, below, and head-note). 

1 Observe that all these expressions contain the idea of Futurity. Compare 
note above. 



General Conditions. 221 

d. The participle in urus with fui is nearly equivalent to a 
pluperfect subjunctive. Hence, when the Apodosis is itself a 
dependent clause, requiring the infinitive or subjunctive, a pluper- 
fect subjunctive may be represented by the Future Participle with 
the proper form of fui (compare Indirect Discourse : 3Z7). 

quid enim futurum fuit [=fuisset], si . . , (Liv. ii. 1), what would 
have happened if, &c. 

neque ambigitur quin ... id facturus fuerit, si . . . (id.), nor is 
there any question he would have done it if &=c. [dir. disc. fecisset\. 

ex quo intellegi potest quam acuti natura sint, qui haec sine doctrina 
credituri fuerint (Tusc. i. 21), hence it may be understood how keen 
they are by nature, who, without instruction, would have believed this. 
[Here the condition is contained in the words sine doctrina.] 

adeo parata seditio fuit, ut Othonem rapturi fuerint, ni incerta 
noctis timuissent (Tac. H. i. 26), so far advanced was the conspiracy 
that they would have seized upon Otho, had they not feared the haz- 
ards of the night. [In the direct discourse, rapiussent ni timuisse7tt.] 

General Conditions. 

309. General conditions are distinguished in Latin in 
only two cases : viz., 

a. The subjunctive is used in the second person singular, to 
denote the act of an Indefinite Subject {you = any one). Here 
the Indicative of a general truth may stand in the apodosis : as, 

mens prope uti ferrum est : si exerceas conteritur ; nisi exerceas, 
rubiginem contrahit (Cato de Mor.), the mind is very like iron : if 
you use it, it wears away ; if you don't use it, it gathers rust. 

virtutem necessario gloria, etiamsi tu id non agas, consequitur (Tusc. 
i. 38), glory necessarily follows virtue, eve7t if that is not one^s aim. 

si prohibita impune transcenderis, neque metus ultra neque pudor 
est (Ann. iii. 54), if you once overstep the bounds with impunity, there 
is no fear nor shame any more. 

si cederes placabilis (Tac. Ann.), [he was] easily appeased if one yielded. 

b. In later writers (not in Cicero), the imperfect and pluperfect 
subjunctive are used in protasis, with the imperfect indicative in 
apodosis, to state a Repeated or Customary action : as, 

accusatores, si facultas incideret, poenis adficiebantur (Ann. vi. 30), 
the.accusers, whenever opportunity offered, zvere visited with punishment. 

c. In all other cases, general suppositions — including those 
introduced by Indefinite Relatives — take the Indicative. 

Note. — In many sentences properly conditional, the subordinate 
member is not expressed as a conditional clause ; but is stated in some 
other form of words, or is implied in the nature of the thought. 



§59 
3. f 



5. a 



5. b 



5. c 



222 Conditional Sentences. 

Condition Disguised. 

310. The condition is often contained in some other 
form of words than a regular Protasis, in the same clause 
or sentence. 

a. The condition may be contained in a Relative, Participial, or 
other qualifying clause : as, 

facile me paterer — vel ipso quaerente, vel apud Cassianos judices — 
pro Sex. Roscio dicere (Rose. Am. 30), I would readily allow my- 
self to speak for Roscius, if he, &>c. 

non mihi, nisi admonito, venisset in mentem (De Or. ii. 42), it would 
not have come ifito mind, unless [I had been] reminded [ = nisi admon- 
itus essem]. 

nulla alia gens tanta mole cladis non obruta esset (Liv. xxii. 54), there 
is no other people that would not have been crushed by such a weight of dis- 
aster [i.e. if it had been any other people]. 

nemo unquam, sine magna spe immortalitatis, se pro patria offerret ad 
mortem (Tusc. i. 15), no one, without great hope of immortality ', would 
ever expose himself to death for his country. 

quid hunc paucorum annorum accessio juvare potuisset (Lael. 3), 
what good could the addition of a few years have done hi?n [if he had 
had them] ? 

b. The condition maybe contained in a Wish, or expressed as a 
Command, by the imperative or hortatory subjunctive : 1 as, 

utinam quidem fuissem ! molestus nobis non esset (Fam. xii. 3), / 
wish I had been [chief] : he would not now be troubling us [i.e. if I 
had been]. 

roges enim Aristonem, neget (Fin. iv. 25), for ask Aristo, he would deny. 
tolle hanc opinionem, luctum sustuleris (Tusc. i. 13), re7nove this 
notion, and you will have done away grief 

naturam expellas furca, tamen usque recurret (Hor. Ep. i. 10), drive 
out nature with a pitchfork, still she will ever return. 

manent ingenia senibus, modo permaneat studium et industria (Cat. 

M. 7), old men keep their mental powers, only let them keep their zeal 
and diligence. 

c. Rarely, the condition is stated in an independent clause : as, 

rides : majore cachinno concutitur (Juv. iii. 100), you laugh ; he shakes 
with louder laughter. 

de paupertate agitur : multi patientes pauperes commemorantur 
(Tusc. iii. 24), we speak of poverty ; many patient poor are mentioned. 



1 This usage is probably the origin of the use of the subjunctive in Protasis ; 
the subjunctive being used first, as in 266, while the conditional particle is a form 
of an indefinite pronoun. 



Implied Conditions. 223 

Condition Omitted. 

311. The condition is often wholly omitted, but may 
be inferred from the course of the argument. 

Remark. — Under this head belong all the apparently independent 
uses of the subjunctive not mentioned in 265. a. In this use the perfect 
subjunctive is especially common, in the same sense as the present, re- 
ferring to the immediate future ; the imperfect to past time (not to 
present, as in 266. e). 

a. The present and perfect subjunctive (often with forsitan or 
the like) are used to denote an action as Possible ; also, the second 
person singular of all the tenses, denoting an act of an Indefinite 
Subject {Potential Subjunctive) : as, 

hie quaerat quispiam (N. D. ii. 53), here some one may ask. 
ut aliquis fortasse dixerit (Off. iii. 6), as one may perhaps say. 

forsitan haec illi mirentur (Verr. v. 56), they may perchance marvel at 

these things. 
turn in lecto quoque videres susurros (Hor. Sat. ii. 8), then on each 

couch you might hear whisperings. 

Remark. — In this use the imperfect or pluperfect refers to past time. 

b. The subjunctive is used in cautious, modest, or hypothetical 
statement (especially velim, etc., in polite wish, — conjunctivus 
modestiae) : as, 

pace tua dixerim (Mil. 38), I would say by your leave. 

haud sciam an (De Or. i. 80), I should incline to think. 

tu velim sic existimes (Fam. xii. 6), I would like you to think so. 

vellem adesset M. Antonius (Phil. i. 7), / wish Antony were here. 

[Here velle7n implies an unfulfilled wish in present time; volo, 

nolo, are peremptory.] 

haec erant fere quae tibi nota esse vellem (Fam. xii. 5), this is about 
what I want you to know. [Here vellem is simply velim transferred 
to past time on account of erat (epistolary), by connection of tenses, 
and does not imply an impossible wish.] 

c. The Indicative of verbs signifying necessity, propriety, and 

the like, may be used in the apodosis of implied conditions, either 

future or contrary to fact : as, 

longum est [sit] ea dicere, sed ... (in Pison. 10), it wotcld be tedious 
to tell, &*c. 

illud erat aptius, aequum cuique concedere (Fin. iv. 1), it would be 
more fitting to yield each one his rights. 

ipsum enim exspectare magnum fuit (Phil. ii. 40), would it have been 

a great matter to wait for himself? 
quanto melius fuerat (Off. hi. 25), how much better it would have been. 
quod contra decuit ab illo meum [corpus cremari] (Cat. M.), whereas 

on the other hand mine ought to have been burnt by him. 



224 Conditional Sentences. 

nam nos decebat domum lugere ubi esset aliquis in lucem editus 

(Tusc. i. 48), for it were fitting to mourn the house where a man has 

been born [bat we do not], 
nunc est bibendum . . . nunc Saliaribus ornare pulvinar deorum 

tempus erat dapibus sodales (Hor. Od. i. yj), i.e. it would be time 

[if it were for us to do it, but it is a public act]. 

Remark. — Notice that, in this construction, the imperfect 
indicative refers to present time; the pluperfect to simply past 
time, like the perfect. Thus oportebat means it ought to be [now], 
but is not; oportuerat means it ought to have been, but was not. 

d. The omission of the protasis often gives rise to mixed con- 
structions : as, 

peream male si non optimum erat (Hor. Sat. ii. 1), may I perish if it 
would not be better. [Here the protasis and apodosis come under 
308. b. Optimum erat is itself an apodosis with the protasis 
omitted.] 

quod si in hoc mundo fieri sine deo non potest, ne in sphaera quidem 
eosdem motus Archimedes sine divino ingenio potuisset imitari 
(Tusc. i. 25). [Here the protasis of potuisset is in sine divino ingenio, 
and the apodosis of si potest is the whole conditional statement 
which follows.] 

Conditional Particles. 

Note. — Certain Particles implying a Condition are followed by 
the Subjunctive, but upon several different principles. 

312. The particles of Comparison — tamqtiam, quasi, 
quam si, acsi, utsi, velutsi, veluti, and poetic ceu — intro- 
duce conditional clauses, of which the conclusion is 
omitted or implied ; and take the subjunctive. 

Remark. — Contrary to the English idiom, the present and 
perfect subjunctive are regularly used with these particles, except 
where the connection of tenses requires secondary tenses : as, 

tamquam si claudus sim (Plaut. Asin. 2), just as if I were lame (i. e. 
just as it would be if I should be lame). 

tamquam clausa sit Asia (Fam. xii. 9), as if Asia were closed. 

quasi vero non specie visa judicentur (Acad. ii. 18), as if forsooth visi- 
ble things were not judged by their appearance. 

velut si coram adesset (B. G. i. 32), as if he zvere presejit i?i person. 

similiter facis ac si me roges (N. S. iii. 3), you do exactly as if you 
asked me. 

aeque ac si mea negotia essent (Fam. xiii. 43), as much as if it were 
my own business. 

ceu cetera nusquam bella forent (/En. ii. 438), as if there were no 
fighting elsewhere. 

magis quam si domi esses (Att. vii.4), more than if you were at home. 



Concessive Particles. 



225 



Concessive Particles. 

313. The particles of Concession — although, grant- 
ing that — sometimes take the subjunctive, but under 
various constructions : viz., 

a. Quamvis and ut (except in later writers) take the hortatory 
subjunctive (266). 

quamvis ipsi infantes sint, tamen . . . (Or. 23), however incapable 

the?nselves of speaking, yet, &*c. 
ut neminem alium . . . rogasset (Mil. 17), even if he had asked no 

other. 

b. Licet is properly a verb, and is followed by an object-clause 

with the subjunctive (331. c). 

licet omnes in me terrores periculaque impendeant (Rose. Am. 11), 
though all terrors and perils should menace me. 

c. Etsi has the same constructions as si (305). 

etsi abest maturitas (Fam. vi. 18), though ripeness of age is wanting. 
etsi nihil aliud abstulissetis (Sull. 32), even if you had taken away 
nothing else. 

d. Cum (concessive) has a special construction (326). 

e. Quamquam takes the Indicative (unless otherwise required 
by the structure of the sentence) : as, 

omnibus — quamquam ruit ipse suis cladibus — pestem, vastitatem, 
cruciatum, tormenta denuntiat (Phil. xiv. 3), though breaking down 
under his disasters, still he threatens all with destruction, plunder, mis- 
ery, and torture. 

f. Quamquam more commonly introduces a proposition in the 

sense of and yet : as, 

quamquam haec quidem jam tolerabilia videbantur, etsi, etc. (Mil. 28), 
and yet these, in truth, it see?ned might now be borne, though, &>c. 

g. Of the concessive particles, the compounds of si are used 
in all the forms of protasis ; quamquam regularly introduces only 
conceded facts, and hence takes the Indicative ; quamvis, quan- 
tum vis, quamlibet, ut, cum, and licet, take idiomatic construc- 
tions, corresponding to their original meaning. Later writers, 
however, frequently use all these particles like the compounds of 
si, connecting them with the Indicative or Subjunctive according 
to the nature of the condition. Even Cicero occasionally uses 
quamquam with the Subjunctive : as, 

quamquam ne id quidem suspitionem coitionis habuerit (Plane. 22), 
though not even that raised any suspicion of a coalition. 

IS 



226 Conditional Sentences, 

Proviso. 

314. A Proviso, introduced by modo, dum, dummodo, 
requires the Subjunctive: as, 

valetudo modo bona sit (Brut. 16) , provided the health is good. 

modo ne sit ex pecudum genere (Off. i. 30), provided [in pleasure] he 
be not of the herd of cattle. 

oderint dum metuant (Off. i. 28), let them hate, if only they fear. 

dum de patris morte quaereretur (Rose. Am. 41), let the inquiry only 
be of a father's death. 

dummodo inter me atque te murus intersit (Cat. i. 5), provided only 
the city wall is between us. 

Note. — The Subjunctive with modo is a hortatory Subjunctive ; 
with dum and duminodo, a development from the Subjunctive in 
temporal clauses (compare colloquial "so long as": see 266.^). 

Use of Si and its Compounds. 

315. The use of some of the more common Conditional 
Particles may be stated as follows : — 

a. Si is used for affirmative, nisi and si non for negative con- 
ditions. With nisi, the negative belongs rather to the Apodosis, 
— i. e. the conclusion is true except in the case supposed ; with 
si non, the Protasis is negative, — i. e. the conclusion is limited to 
the case supposed. (The difference is often only one of emphasis.) 
Nisi is never used if the clause has a concessive force. Ni is an 
old form, reappearing in poets and later winters, and in a few con- 
ventional phrases. Sometimes nisi si, except if, unless, occurs : as, 

noli putare me ad quemquam longiores epistulas scribere, nisi si quis 
ad me plura scripsit, cui puto rescribi oportere (Fam. xiv. 2), don't 
suppose that T write anybody longer letters, except in case one writes 
more to me, and so I think he must be answered. 

b. Nisi vero and nisi forte — sometimes nisi alone — regularly 
introduce an objection or exception, ironically, and take the Indica- 
tive : as, 

nisi forte volumus Epicureorum opinionem sequi (De Fato, 16), uti- 
les s to be sure we choose to follow the notion of the Epicureans. 

c. Sive . . . sive (seu) introduce conditions in the form of an 
alternative. They have no peculiar construction, but may be used 
with any kind of condition, or with different kinds in the two 
branches, often also without a verb : as, 

nam illo loco libentissime soleo uti, sive quid mecum ipse cogito, 
sive quid aut scribo aut lego (De Leg. ii. 1), for I enjoy myself most 
in that place, whether I am thinking by myself, or am either writing of 
reading. [Sive . . . seu is late or poetic] 



Relative Clauses, 227 



Chapter V. — Dependent Constructions. 

I. — Relative Clauses* 

The Relative, being in origin a weak demonstrative (or possibly, in 
some cases, an interrogative), may be used alike with the indicative and 
the subjunctive. A simple relative, merely introducing a descriptive fact, 
takes the Indicative, as any demonstrative would do. But the Subjunc- 
tive appears in many relative constructions, indicating a closer logical 
connection between the relative clause and the main clause. These 
constructions have grown up from the future meaning of the subjunctive, 
each with its own special development. In general they are of two 
kinds, not, however, very distinct in meaning: viz., i. clauses where the 
implied logical connection is that of Purpose ; 2. clauses which express 
more or less distinctly some Characteristic of the antecedent, of which 
the most frequent is the ordinary clause of Result. 3. Besides these, 
however, there are general relatives of Protasis ; the indefinite relatives 
whoroer, whenever, &c, being regarded as conditional expressions, equiv- 
alent to, if any one, if at any time, &C. 1 This leads to the following scheme 
of dependent relative constructions : — 

1. General Relatives of Protasis. 

2. Relative Clauses of Purpose (Final Clauses). 

3. Relative Clauses of Characteristic, including — 

a. Simple Result (Consecutive) Clauses. 

b. Clauses of Characteristic (including cause and hindrance). 

c. Clauses of Relative Time. 

Conditional Relative Clauses. 

316. A clause introduced by an Indefinite Relative is 
treated as a Conditional clause, and may take any of the 
forms of Protasis : as, 

quisquis hue venerit vapulabit (PL Am. 153), whoever ( = if any one) 

comes here he shall be thrashed. 
quaecumque causa vos hue attulisset, laetarer (De Or. ii. 4), I should 

be glad, whatever cause had brought you here [i.e. if any other, as well 

as the one which did], 
philosophia, cui qui pareat, omne tempus aetatis sine molestia possit 

degere (Cat. M. 1), philosophy , which IF any one obeys, he will be able 

to spend his whole life without vexation. 
virtutem qui adeptus erit ubicunque erit gentium a nobis diligetur 

(N. D. i. 44), i.e. if any one shall have attained virtue, &*c. 

1 As in the analogy of the Greek 6? av, brav, &c. ; and in statutes, where the 
phrases if any person shalt, or whoever shall, are used indifferently. 



228 Dependent Constructions. 

Clauses of Purpose. 

Note. — The Subjunctive clause of Purpose has arisen either from the 
original future meaning of the subjunctive, or from its hortatory use. 
Grammarians are not agreed upon the point ; but it must have originated 
from one or the other, and either affords a satisfactory analysis. If it 
was developed from the hortatory subjunctive, it has come through a kind 
of indirect discourse construction (for which see 340) : thus misit legatos 
qui dicer ent means either he sent ambassadors who would say (future use), 
or, he sent ambassadors who should say, i.e. let them say (compare hortatory 
subjunctive in past tenses, 266. e, with the thought and hortatory clauses 
in Indirect Discourse, 336, 339). 

As ut (uti) is of relative origin, the construction with ut is the same 
as that of relatives. That with lie is no doubt, in origin, a hortatory 
subjunctive. 

317. Final Clauses, or those expressing Purpose, 
take the Subjunctive after relatives (qui = ut is), or the 
conjunction ut (uti), in order that (negatively ut ne or 
ne, that not, lest) : as, 

ab aratro abduxerunt Cincinnatum, ut dictator esset (Fin. ii. 4), they 
brought Cincinnatus from the plough that he might be dictator. 

scribebat orationes quas alii dicerent (Brut. 56), he wrote speeches for 
other men to deliver. 

hunc ne ubi consisteret quidem contra te locum reliquisti (Quinct. 
22), you have left him no ground even to make a stand against you. 

nihil habeo quod scribam, I have nothing to write. 

habebam quo confugerem (Fam. iv. 6), I had [a retreat] whither I 
might flee. 



ut ne sit impune (Mil. 12), that it be not with impunity. 
ne qua ejus adventus procul significatio fiat (B. G. vi. 29), that no 
sign of his arrival may be made at a distance. 

a. Sometimes the relative or conjunction has a correlative in 
the main clause : as, 

legum idcirco omnes servi sumus, ut liberi esse possimus (Clu. 53), 

for this reason we are subject to the laws, that we may be free. 
ea causa . . . ne,for this reason, lest, 6-v. 

b. The ablative quo ( = ut eo) is used as a conjunction in final 
clauses, especially with comparatives : as, 

libertate usus est, quo impunius dicax esset (Quinct. 3), he availed 
himself of liberty, that he might bluster with more impunity. 

Compare quominus (=ut eo minus), after verbs of hindering 
(see 331. e). 



Final Clauses. 229 

j 

c. The Principal clause, upon which a final clause depends, is 
often to be supplied from the context : as, 

ac ne longum sit . . . jussimus (Cat. iii. 5), and, not to be tedious, we 
ordered, 6°<f. [strictly, "not to be tedious, I say."] 

sed ut ad Dionysium redeamus, . . . (Tusc. v. 22), but to return to 
Dionysius, &*c. 

satis inconsiderati fuit, ne dicam audacis (Phil. xiii. 5), it was the act 
of one rash enough, not to say daring. 

Remark. — To this principle belongs nedum (sometimes ne), 
still less, not to mention that, with which the verb itself is often 
omitted : as, 

nedum . . . salvi esse possimus (Clu. 35), much less could we be safe. 
nedum isti . . . non statim conquisituri sint aliquid sceleris et flagitii 

(Leg. Ag. ii. ZS)">f ar more W M ^ ie y hunt up at once some sort of crime 

and scandal. 
nedum in mari et via sit facile (Fam. xvi. 8), still less is it easy at sea, 

and on a journey. 
quippe secundae res sapientium animos fatigant ; ne illi corruptis 

moribus victoriae temperarent (Sail. C. n), for prosperity overmasters 

the soul even of the wise ; much less did they with their corrupt morals 

put any check on victory. 

d. Final clauses easily become the object of verbs of Wishing, 
Commanding, &c. (see 331. a, b). 

Remark. — The clause of Purpose is sometimes rendered in English 
by that, or in order that, with may or might (Potential) ; but more fre- 
quently by the Infinitive with to : as, 

veni ut viderem, I came to see [that I might see). 

318. The Purpose of an action is expressed in Latin 
in various ways ; but never (except rarely in poetry) by 
the simple Infinitive, as in English. The sentence, they 
came to seek peace, may be rendered — 

(1) venerunt ut pacem peterent [final clause with ut] ; 

(2) „ qui ftacem fteterent [final clause with Relative] ; 

(3) „ ad petendum ftacem (rare) [gerund with ad] ; 

(4) „ ad ftetendam ftacem [gerundive with ad] ; 

(5) „ ftacem ftetendi causa x [gerund with causa] ; 

(6) „ ftacis petendae causa 1 [gerundive with causa] ; 

(7) „ pacem petituri [future participle : not in Cicero] ; 

(8) „ pacem peti turn [former supine]. 

1 Or gratia. 



230 Dependent Constructions. 

In the choice of these forms the following suggestions 
are to be observed : — 

a. The most general way of expressing purpose is by ut 
(negatively ne), unless the purpose is closely connected with some 
one word) in which case the relative is more common. Thus — 

1. Arria gladium dedit marito ut se interficeret, Arria gave her hits- 

band a sword to kUl himself (that he might kill himself). 

2. Arria gladium dedit marito quo se interficeret, Arria gave her hus- 

band a sword to kill himself WITH. 

b. The Gerundive constructions of purpose are usually limited 
to short concise expressions, where the literal translation of the 
phrase, though not the English idiom, is nevertheless not harsh 
or strange. 

c. The Supine is used to express purpose only with verbs of 
motion, and in a few idiomatic expressions. 

d. The Future Participle, used to express purpose, is a late 
construction of inferior authority. 

Characteristic and Result. 

Note. — The clause of Characteristic is a development peculiar to 
Latin, and has its origin in the potential use of the subjunctive. A Pro- 
tasis was, perhaps, originally implied, though this is not necessary to the 
analysis. The difference between the Subjunctive in such clauses and 
the Indicative of simple description is that the subjunctive expresses 
what would happen in a supposed case, while the indicative states what 
did in fact take place. The most common and obvious use of this con- 
struction is to express a quality or characteristic of an indefinite antece- 
dent (either expressed or implied), which shows itself as a Result. 
Thus, is [Epicurus] qui ponat summum bonum in voluptate would mean, 
literally, a man who, would, in any supposable case, &*c. This serves to 
express a characteristic of the indefinite person referred to by is, mak- 
ing him one of a class ; while is qui ponit would mean the man (Epic- 
urus) who in fact does, &=c. So, non sum ita hebes ut ita dicam would 
mean, literally, "I am not dull in the manner (degree) in which I should 
say that." This quality of the antecedent readily passes over into pure 
Result, inasmuch as it is by a supposed result that the quality appears. 

319. Consecutive Clauses, or those expressing Re- 
sult, take the Subjunctive after relatives or the conjunc- 
tion ut, so that (negatively, ut non) : as, 

nemo est tarn senex, qui se annum non putet posse vivere (Cat. M. 
7), 710 one is so old as not to think he can live a year. 



Consecutive Clauses. 231 

nam est innocentia affectio talis animi, quae noceat nemini (Tusc. iii. 

8), for innocence is such a quality of mind as to do harm to no one. 
sunt aliae causae quae plane emciant (Top. 15), there are other causes 

such as to bring to pass. 

Remark. — Clauses of Result are often introduced by such correla- 
tive words as tarn, talis, taittus, ita, sic, adeo. 

a. A negative result is regularly expressed by ut non. Some- 
times, when the result implies an effect intended (not a simple pur- 
pose), ut ne or ne is used, being less positive than ut non : as, 

[librum] ita corrigas ne mini noceat (Fam. vi. 7), correct the book so 
that it may not hurt me. 

b. Frequently a clause of result is used in a restrictive sense, 
and so amounts to a JProviso : as, 

hoc est ita utile ut ne plane illudamur ab accusatoribus (Rose. Am. 
20), this is so far useful that we are not utterly mocked by the accusers 
[i.e. only on this condition]. 

c. The subjunctive with quominus (= ut eo minus) may be 

used, to express a result, after words of hindering : as, 

nee aetas impedit quominus agri colendi studia teneamus (Cat. M. 
17), nor does age prevent us from retaining an interest in tilling 
the grou?id. 

d. A clause of result is introduced by quin after general nega- 
tives, where quin is equivalent to qui (quae, quod) non ; also 
after clauses denoting hindrance, resistance, doubt, and suspension 
of effort (when these clauses are also negative): as, 

non dubito quin, I do not doubt that [dubito an, I doubt whether]. 
aegre (vix) abstinui quin . . ., I hardly refrained from, &>c. 
nihil impedit quin . . ., there is nothing to prevent, &*c. 
abesse non potest quin (Or. 70), it cannot be but that. 
nihil est illorum quin [= quod non] ego illi dixerim (Plaut. Bac. iii. 
9), there is nothing of this that I have not told him. 

Note. — The above clauses of Result easily pass into Substan- 
tive Clauses, for which see 332. 

Remark. — It is to be observed that the constructions of Purpose or 
Result in Latin are precisely alike in the affirmative, but that in the 
negative one takes ne and the other ut non. Thus, — 

custoditus est ne effugeret, he was guarded so that he might not escape ; 

custoditus est ut non effugeret, he was guarded so that he DID not 
escape. 

The clause of Result is sometimes expressed in English by the Infinitive 
with TO or so-as-to or an equivalent : as, 

tarn longe aberam ut non viderem, / zvas too far away to see (so far 
that I did not see ; compare 320. c). 



232 Dependent Constructions: Characteristic, 

320. A relative clause with the Subjunctive is often 
used to indicate a Characteristic of the antecedent, where 
the idea of Result cannot be perceived. This is especially 
common where the antecedent is otherwise undefined : as, 

neque enim tu is es, qui qui sis nescias (Fam. v. 12), for you are not 
such a one, as not to know who you are {qui sis is an indirect ques- 
tion). 

multa dicunt quae vix intelligant (Fin. iv. 1), they say many things such 

as they hardly understand. 
pad quae nihil habitura sit insidiarum semper est consulendum (Off. 

i. 11 ), we must always aim at a peace which shall have 710 plots. 
unde agger comportari posset, nihil erat reliquum (B. C. ii. 15), there 

was nothing left, from which an embankment could be put together. 

a. A relative clause of characteristic is used after general ex- 
pressions of existence and non-existence, including questions imply- 
ing a negative : ' as, 

erant qui Helvidium miserarentur (Ann. xvi. 29), there zuere some who 

pitied Helvidius. 
quis est qui id non maximis efferat laudibus (Lsel. 7), who is there 

that does not extol it with the highest praises ? 
sunt aliae causae quae plane efficiant (Top. 15), there are other causes 
which clearly effect, <2rY. 

b. A relative clause of characteristic result may folio w unus and 

solus : as, 

nil admirari prope res est una solaque quae possit facere et servare 
beatum (Hor. Ep. i. 6), to wonder at nothing is almost the sole and 
only thing that can make and keep one happy. 

c. Comparatives may be followed by a clause of result or char- 
acteristic with quam ut, quam qui (corresponding to the English 
too . . . to) : as, , 

majores arbores caedebant quam quas ferre miles posset (Liv. xxviii. 

5), they cut larger trees than what a soldier could carry {too large for 

a soldier to carry) . 
Canachi signa rigidiora sunt quam ut imitentur veritatem (Brut. 18), 

the statues of Canachus are too stiff to represent nature. 

d. A clause of characteristic is used in expressions of Restric- 
tion or Proviso, introduced by relatives : as, 

quod sciam, so far as I know. 

Catonis orationes, quas quidem invenerim (Brut. 17), the speeches of 

Cato, at least such as I have discovered. 
servus est nemo, qui modo tolerabili condicione sit servitutis (Cat. iv. 

8), there is not a slave, at least in any tolei'able condition of slavery. 



1 These are sometimes called Relative Clauses with an Indefinite Antecedent, 
but are to be carefully distinguished from the Indefinite Relative in protasis. 



Clause of Characteristic ; Causal. 



233 



e. A relative clause (often with ut, utpote, quippe) is used 

when the quality indicated is connected with the action of the main 
clause, either as Cause on account of which (since), or as Hind- 
rance in spite of which (although j compare 326) : as, 

O virum simplicem qui nos nihil celet (Or. 69), oh, guileless man, who 

hides nothing from us ! 
egomet qui sero Graecas litteras attigissem tamen complures Athenis 

dies sum commoratus (De Or. 18), / myself, though I began Greek 

literature late, yet, &*c. [lit., a man who). 

f. Dignus, indignus, aptus, idoneus, take a clause of result 
with a relative (rarely with ut) ; in the poets the Infinitive : as, 
idoneus qui impetret (Manil. 19), ft to obtain. 
dignum notari (Hor. Sat. i. 3), worthy to be stigmatized. 

Note. — A clause of Relative Time with cum is strictly to be 
regarded orginally as a Clause of Characteristic (see 325). 

Cause or Reason. 

Note. — Causal clauses may take the Indicative or Subjunc- 
tive according to their construction ; the idea of Cause being con- 
tained not in the mood itself, but in the form of the argument, or 
the connecting particles. 

321. The Causal Particles quia, quoniam, qtiando, 
quod — and in early Latin also cum (quoin) — take the 
Indicative : as, 

quia postrema aedificata est (Verr. iv. 53), because it was built last. 
utinam ilium diem videam, cum tibi agam gratias quod me vivere 

coegisti (Att. iii. 3), O that I ?nay see the day when I may thank you 

that you have forced me to live. 

quoniam de utilitate jam diximus, de efficiendi ratione dicamus (Or. 
Part. 26), since we have now spoken of [its] advantage, let us speak of 
the method of effecting it. 

quando ita vis, di bene vortant (Trin. 573), since you so wish, may the 
gods bless the undertaking. 

quom tua res distrahitur, utinam te redisse salvam videam (id. 617), 
since your property is torn in pieces, oh, that I may see you returned 
safely ! 

a. Clauses introduced by these particles, like any other depend- 
ent clause, take the Subjunctive of Indirect Discourse. 

b. A relative clause of Characteristic, with its verb in the sub- 
junctive, may have the force of a causal sentence. 

For this, see 320. e. 

c. The particle cum, when used in a causal sense, regularly 
takes the Subjunctive. 

For this, see 326. 



234 Dependent Constructions: Temporal. 

Relations of Time. 

Note. — Temporal clauses are introduced by particles which 
are almost all of relative origin ; and are construed like other rela- 
tive clauses, except where they have developed into special con- 
structions. 

[For the Temporal Particles, see page 99 ] 

322. The particles ubi, ut y cum, quando, either alone or 
compounded with -cumque, are used as Indefinite Rela- 
tives, and have the constructions of Protasis : as, 

cum rosam viderat, turn incipere ver arbitrabatur (Verr. v. 10), when- 
ever he had seen a rose he thought spring had begun [general con- 
dition : compare 309]. 

cum id malum esse negas (Tusc. ii. 12), when you [the individual dis- 
putant] deny it to be aft evil. 

cum videas eos . . . dolore non frangi (id. 27), when you see that those 
are not broken by pain, &*c. [general condition : compare 309. a]. 

quod profecto cum me nulla vis cogeret, facere non auderem (Phil. v. 
18), which I would surely not venture to do, as long as no force com- 
pelled me [contrary to fact : compare 308]. 

id ubi dixisset, hastam in fines eorum emittebat (Liv. i. 32), when 
he had said this, he [used to] cast the spear into their territories [re- 
peated action : see 309. b]. 

Remark. — The phrases est cum, fuit cum, &c, are used in 
general expressions like est qui, sunt qui (320. a). 

323. Temporal clauses of absolute time take the Indi- 
cative ; those of relative time, the Subjunctive. 1 

1 For the definition of Absolute and Relative time, see 264. a, 284. This 
distinction is not made in other languages, but it may be made clear in the two fol- 
lowing expressions: 1. When was the great fire in London? Ans. When 
Charles II. was king {absolute time). 2. When Charles II. was king {relative 
time), a great fire broke out in London. In the first case the reign of Charles is 
referred to as an absolute fixed date, known to the hearer ; while in the second the 
time is not so fixed, but is given as relative to the event narrated by the main ve?'b, 
which alone denotes absolute time. In this construction, the Subjunctive describes 
the time by its characteristics (as in 320), and thus is akin to the subjunctive 
of Result. Hence this qualitative character of the temporal clause often reappears 
and occasions the subjunctive, where the idea of relative time would not naturally 
be expected : as, turn, cum haberet haec respublica Luscinos, &>c. . . . ettum, 
cum erant Catones, &c. Here the former clause describes the character of the 
age by its men (at A time when there were such men) ; in the latter, the individual 
men are present to the mind (at the time of the Catos, &c. — Leg. Agr., ii. 24). 



Relations of Time. 235 

324. The Particles postquam (posteaquam), ubi, ut (ut pri- 
mum, ut semel), simul atque (simul ac, or simul alone), intro- 
duce clauses of absolute time, and take the Indicative (usually the 
narrative tenses, the perfect and the historical present) : as, 

milites postquam victoriam adepti sunt, nihil reliqui victis fecere 
(Sail. Cat. 11), when the armies had won the victory ', they left nothing 
to the vanquished. 

Pompeius ut equitatum suum pulsum vidit, acie excessit (B. C. iii. 
94), when Pompey saw his cavalry beaten, he left the army. 

a. These particles also less commonly take the imperfect, denot- 
ing a continued state of things, and the phiperfect, denoting the 
result of an action completed, in the Indicative : as, 

postquam instructi utrimque stabant, duces in medium procedunt 
(Liv. i. 23), when they stood in array on both sides , the generals ad- 
vance into the midst. 

P. Africanus posteaquam bis consul et censor fuerat (Div. in Caec. 
21), when Africanus had been [i.e. had the dignity of having been] 
twice consul and censor. 

postquam id difficilius visum est, neque facultas perficiendi dabatur, 
ad Pompeium transierunt (B. C. iii. 60), when this seemed too hard, 
and no means of effecting it were given, they passed over to Pompey. 

post diem quintum quam barbari iterum male pugnaverant (= victi 
sunt), legati a Boccho veniunt (Jug. no), the fifth day after the bar- 
barians were beaten the second time, envoys came from Bocchus. 

Remark. — The time is still absolute in these cases, but the Imper- 
fect is used as in description ; the Pluperfect to denote the past result 
of the action. 

b. Rarely these particles appear to denote relative time, and take 
the Subjunctive : as, 

posteaquam maximas aedificasset ornassetque classes (Manil. 4), hav- 
ing built and equipped mighty fleets. [But the more approved editions 
have p os tea cum]. 

325. Cum (quom), temporal, meaning when, introduces both 
absolute and relative time, and takes either mood, —the Indicative 
of the present and perfect, the Subjunctive of the imperfect and 
pluperfect : as, 

cum occiditur Sex. Roscius, ibidem fuerunt servi (Rose. Am. 61), 

when Roscius was slain, the slaves were on the spot. 
nempe eo [lituo] regiones direxit turn cum urbem condidit (Div. i. 17), 

he traced with it the quarters [of the sky] at the time he founded the 

city. 

cum servili bello premeretur (Manil. 11), when she [Italy] was under 

the load of the Servile war. 
cum incendisses cupiditatem meam . . . turn discedis a nobis (Fam. xv. 

21), while you had inflamed my eagerness, yet you withdraw from us. 



236 Dependent Constructions. 

Note. — The Present takes the Indicative, because present time is 
generally, from its very nature, defined in the mind ; and it is only when 
the circumstances are described as causal or adversative (see below, 
326), that the Subjunctive is used. The Perfect takes the Indicative 
as the tense of narration, as with postquam, &c. The Imperfect and 
Pluperfect are, from their nature, fitter to denote relative time. 

a. The Imperfect and Pluperfect may denote absolute time, and 

then are in the Indicative (compare 264. a): as, 

res cum haec scribebam erat in extremum adducta discrimen (Farn. 
xii. 6), at the time I write [epistolary] the affair has been brought 
into great hazard. 

quern quidem cum ex urbe pellebam, hoc providebam animo (Cat. 
iii. 7), when I was trying to force him [conative imperfect] from the 
city, I looked forward to this. 

fulgentes gladios hostium videbant Decii cum in aciem eorum inrue- 
bant (Tusc. ii. 24), the Decii saw the flashing swords of the enemy 
when they rushed upon their line. 

turn cum in Asia res magnas permulti amiserant (Manil. 7), at that 
time, when many had lost great fortunes in Asia. 

b. When the clauses are inverted, so that the real temporal 
clause becomes the main clause, and vice versa, the Indicative 
must be used : as, 

dies nondum decern intercesserant, cum ille alter Alius infans necatur 
(Clu. 9), ten days had not yet passed, when the other infant son was 
killed. 

hoc facere noctu apparabant, cum matres familiae repente in publi- 
cum procurrerunt (B. G. vii. 26), they were preparing to do this by 
night, when the women suddenly ran out into the streets. 

c. With Future tenses, there is no distinction of absolute or 
relative time ; and hence the Indicative is used: as, 

non dubitabo dare operam ut te videam, cum id satis commode facere 
potero (Fam. xiii. 1), I shall not hesitate to take pains to see you, when 
I can do it conveniently. 

longum illud tempus cum non ero (Att. xii. 18), that long time when 
I shall be no more. 

Remark. — In the other tenses, the distinction is of late origin: 
hence in Plautus quom always takes the Indicative, except where the 
Subjunctive is used for other reasons. 

326. Cum causal or concessive ! (since, while, though) takes 

the subjunctive (often emphasized by ut, utpote, quippe, prae- 

sertim) : as, 

cum solitudo . . . insidiarum et metus plena sit (Fin. i. 20), since 
solitude is full of treachery and fear. 



1 This causal relation is merely a variation of the idea of time, where the 
attendant circumstances are regarded as the cause. 



Particles of Time. 237 

cum primi ordines . . . concidissent, tamen acerrime reliqui resiste- 
bant (B. G. vii. 61), though the first ranks had fallen, still the others 
resisted vigorously. 

nee reprehendo : quippe cum ipse istam reprehensionem non fugerim 
(Att. x. 3), I do not bla?ne it: since I myself did not escape that blame. 

a. Cum in the sense of quod, on the ground that, frequently 
takes the Indicative : as, 

gratulor tibi cum tantum vales apud Dolabellam (Fam. xi. 14), / 
congratulate you that you are so strong with Dolabella. 

b. Cum . . . turn, signifying both . . . and, usually take the 
Indicative ; but when cum approaches the sense of while or though, 
it may have the Subjunctive : as, 

cum multa non probo, turn illud in primis (Fin. i. 6), while there are 

many things I do not approve, there is this in chief. 
cum res tota ficta sit pueriliter, turn ne efficit quidem quod vult (ib.), 

while the whole thing is childishly got up, he does not even make his 

point. 
Remark. — This appears to be a colloquial relic of the old Indicative 
construction with cum. 

327. Antequam and priusquam — also, in late writers, dum 
and donee — have in narration the same construction as cum : as, 
antequam tuas legi litteras (Att. ii. 7), before I read your letter. 
neque ante dimisit eum quam fidem dedit adulescens (Liv. xxxix. 10), 

she did not let the young man go till he pledged his faith. 
antequam homines nefarii de meo adventu audire potuissent, in 

Macedonian! perrexi (Plane. 41), before those evil men could learn 

of my coming, I arrived in Macedonia. 
nee obstitit falsis donee tempore ac spatio vanescerent (Tac. Ann. 

ii. 82), nor did he contradict the falsehoods till they died out through 

lapse of time. 

a. In reference to future time, these particles take the present 
and future perfect indicative ; rarely the present subjunctive : as, 

prius quam de ceteris rebus respondeo, de amicitia pauca dicam 
(Phil. ii. 1), before I reply to the rest, I will say a little of friendship. 

non defatigabor ante quam illorum ancipites vias percepero (De Or. 
iii. 36), I shall not weary till I have traced out their doubtful ways. 

b. In a few cases the subjunctive of protasis seems to be used : 

as, 

priusquam incipias consulto et ubi consulueris mature facto opus est 

(Sail. Cat. 1), before beginning you need reflection, aitd after reflecting, 

prompt action. 
tempestas minatur antequam surgat (Sen. Ep. i. 3), the storm threatens 

before it rises. 

c. When the main clause is negative, meaning not before, not 
until, the Indicative is always used (see a. above, second example). 



238 Substantive Clauses. 

328. Dum, donee, and quoad, implying purpose, doubt, or 
futurity, take the subjunctive ; otherwise, except in later writers, 
the indicative. Dum and dummodo, provided, take the sub- 
junctive : as, 

dum haec geruntur (B. G. i. 46), while this was going on. 

donee redht silentium fuit (Liv. xxiii. 31), there was silence until he 
returned. 

dum res maneant, verba fingant (Fin. v. 27), so long as the facts re- 
?nain, let them fashion words. 

hoc feci dum licuit, intermisi quoad non licuit (Phil. iii. 13). / did 
this so long as it was allowed, I discontinued so long as it was not. 

dummodo sit polita, dum urbana, dum elegans (Brut. ^2), provided 
it be polished, refined, elegant. 

Remark. — With all temporal particles, the Subjunctive is 
often found, depending on other principles of construction. (See 
Intermediate Clauses below, p. 251.) 

II. — Substantive Clans es. 

329. A Substantive Clause is one which, like a noun, 
is the subject or object of a verb, or in apposition with 
a subject or object. 

Note. — In these the form of expression will depend on the meaning 
of the dependent words, or clause. Thus, if the words can be put in an 
independent form as the words of some person making an assertion in 
the Indicative, they form what is called Indirect Discourse, and the clause 
is in the Accusative and Infinitive, as the Object of some verb of saying, 
&c. (see 272. with Remark). If they can be put in an independent form 
as a Question, they require the Subjunctive as Indirect Questions. If 
they can be put in an independent form as the words of some person in 
the Infinitive, or can be conceived as a Purpose or Result, they usually 
take the Subjunctive with ut, more rarely the Infinitive. If they could 
be expressed independently in the Indicative, but as a fact, and not as 
the words of some other person, they regularly require quod with the 
Indicative. Many expressions which in English take the form of an 
abstract noun may be rendered by a substantive clause in Latin : thus, 
" he was accused of treason against his country/' will be accusatus est 
quod patriam prodidisset. The common expression FOR with the infinitive 
also introduces a true substantive clause : as, " it is left for me to speak 
of the piratic war," reliquum est ut de bello dicam piratic o. 

When a substantive clause is used as Subject, the verb to which it ia 
subject is called Impersonal, and its sign, in English, is IT ; when it is 
used as Object, it generally follows some verb of knowing, 6°<r., or of 
wishing ox effecting, and its sign, in English, is THAT, or TO (Infinitive). 



Substantive Clauses: Infinitive. 239 

Substantive Clauses are classified as follows : — 

( a. Infinitive as Subject (270). 

1. Infinitive Clauses: I b. Infinitive as Object (271). 

( c. Infinitive with Subject Accusative (272). 

2. Subjunctive Clauses : j a. of Purpose (command, wish, fear). 
{tit, ne, quo, quin, quominus). \ b. of Result (happen, effect, hinder). 

3. Indicative Clause with quod: Fact, Specification, Feeling. 

4. Indirect Questions : Subjunctive, introduced by Interrogative Word. 

Infinitive Clauses. 

330. The Accusative with the Infinitive is used as the 
Subject chiefly of esse, or of Impersonal Verbs ; and 
as the Object of the following i 1 

1. Of all verbs and expressions of Knowing, Thinking, Telling, 
and Perceiving {Indirect Discourse). 

2. Of jubeo and veto, and rarely of other verbs of Command- 
ing, Requesting, Admonishing, and the like. 

3. Sometimes of verbs of Wishing : as, 

me spero liberatum [esse] metu (Tusc. ii. 27), I trust I have been freed 

from fear. 
dicit montem ab hostibus teneri (B. G. i. 22), he says that the height 

is held by the enemy. 

Labienum jugum montis adscendere jubet (id. 21), he orders Labienus 

to ascend the ridge of the hill. 
judicem esse me non doctorem volo (Or 33), I wish to be a judge, not 

a teacher. 
negat ullos patere portus (Li v. xxviii. 43), he says that no ports are 

open. 

hie accusare non est situs (Sest. 44), he was not allowed to accuse. 

Remark. — The Infinitive with the Accusative, though not strictly a 
Clause, is equivalent to one, and may be treated as such. 

a If the main verb is changed to the Passive, either — 

1. The subject of the infinitive (like other objects of active 
verbs) becomes nominative, and the infinitive is retained ; or, 

2. The passive is used impersonally, and the clause retained as 
its subject. 



1 The accusative with infinitive is found with about 80 verbs or verbal phrases, 
the most common being accipio, affirmo, animadverto, arbitror, audio, censeo, 
cogito, cupio, decet, dico, disputo, doceo, doleo, existimo, fama est, fateor, intelligi- 
tur, jurat, memini, narro, nego, nolo, oportet, opus est, patior, puto, recordor, 
rumor est, sentio, sino, spero, suspicor, traditur, verum est, veto, video, videtur, 
volo. 



240 Dependent Constructions. 

b. With verbs of saying, &c., the personal construction of the pas- 
sive is more common, especially in the tenses of incomplete action ; 
with jubeo and veto it is always used : as, 

primi traduntur arte quadam verba vinxisse (Or. 13), they first are 
related to have joined words with a certain skill. 

jussus es renuntiari consul (Phil. ii. 32), you were under orders to be 
declared consul. 

in lautumias Syracusanas deduci imperantur (Verr. v. 27), they are 

ordered to be taken to the stone-pits of Syracuse. 
ceterae Illyrici legiones secuturae sperabantur (Tac. Hist. ii. 74), the 

rest of the legions of Illyricum were expected to follow. 
nuntiatur piratarum naves esse in portu (Verr. v. 24), it is told that 

the ships of the pirates are in port. 

c. In the compound tenses the impersonal construction is more 
common, and with the gerundive is regular : as, 

traditum est etiam Homerum caecum fuisse (Tusc. v. 39), it is a tra- 
dition, too, that Homer was blind. 

ubi tyrannus est, ibi non vitiosam, sed dicendum est plane nullam esse 
rempublicam (Rep. iii. 31), where there is a tyrant, it must be said, not 
that the Commonwealth is evil, but that it does not exist at all. 

d. The poets and later writers extend the use of the passive to 
verbs which are not properly verba sentiendi, etc. : as, 

colligor dominae placuisse (Ov. Am. ii. 6, 61), it is gathered [from 
this memorial] that I pleased my mistress. 

e. The indirect discourse may depend on any word implying 
speech or thought, though not strictly a verb of saying, etc. : as, 

eos redire jubet : se in tempore adfuturum esse (Liv. xxiv. 13), he 
orders them to return, [promising] that he will be at hand in season. 

orantes ut urbibus saltern — jam enim agros deploratos esse — opem 
senatus ferret (id. xvi. 6) /praying that the senate would at least bring 
aid to the cities — for the fields [they said] were already given up as lost. 

f. Verbs of promising, hoping, expecting, threate7ii?ig, swearing, 
and the like, regularly take the construction of Indirect Discourse, 
contrary to the English idiom ; but sometimes a simple complemen- 
tary infinitive : as, 

minatur sese abire (Asin. iii. 3), he threate?ts to go away. [Direct, abeo, 

/ am going away.] 
ex quibus sperant se maximum fructum esse capturos (Lael. 21), 

from zuhich they hope to gain the utmost advantage. 
quern inimicissimum futurum esse promitto ac spondeo (Mur. 41), 

who I promise and warra7it will be the bitterest of enemies. 
dolor fortitudinem se debilitaturum minatur (Tusc. v. 27), pai?i 

threatens to wear down fortitude. 
pollicentur obsides dare (B. G iv. 21), they promise to give hostages 

[compare Greek aorist infinitive after similar verbs]. 



Substantive Clauses of Purpose. 241 

Clauses of Purpose. 

331. The clause with ut (negative ne), developed from 
purpose, is used as the object of all verbs denoting an 
action directed towards the future} Such are — 

a. Verbs of commanding, asking, admonishing, urging, and in 
general those denoting an influence upon some one. These verbs 
rarely take the infinitive (except jubeo and veto, which take it 
regularly) : as, 

his uti conquirerent imperavit (B. G. i. 28), he ordered them to search. 
monet ut omnes suspitiones vitet (id. 20), he warns him to avoid all 
suspicion. 

b. Verbs of Wishing and the like. These take also the simple 
Infinitive : more commonly when the subject remains the same, 
less commonly when it is different (see 331, above) : as, 

cupio ut impetret (Capt. i. 2), I wish he may get it. 

cum nostri perspici cuperent (B. G. hi. 21), when our men wished it to 

be seeit. 
mallem Cerberum metueres (Tusc. i. 6), / would rather you feared 

Cerberus. 
quos non tarn ulcisci studeo quam sanare (Cat. ii. 8), whom I do not 

care so much to punish as to cure. 

c. Verbs of permissio7i, concession, and necessity (with or without 
ut). These take also the Infinitive : as, 

permisit ut partes faceret (De Or. ii. 90), permitted him to make di- 
visions. 

vinum importari non sinunt (B. G. iv. 2), they do not allotu wine to be 
imported. 

nullo se implicari negotio passus est (Lig. 3), he suffered himself to be 
tangled in no business. 

sint enim oportet si miseri sunt (Tusc. i. 6), they must exist if they are 
wretched. [Here the clause is subject of oportet.] 

Remark. — The clause with licet (usually without ut) is regularly 
used to express a concession in the sense of although. 

d. Verbs of deter?nining, resolving, bargaining, which also take 
the Infinitive. Those of decreeing often take the participle in dus, 
on the principle of Indirect Discourse : as, 

edicto ne quis injussu pugnaret (Liv. v. 19), having commanded that 
none should fight without orders. 



1 Such Verbs or verbal phrases are id ago, ad id venio, caveo {ne), censeo, 
cogo, concedo, constitno, euro, decerno, edico,fiagito, hortor, hnpero,impetro, insto, 
?na7ido, metuo {ne), negotium do, operam do, oro, persuadeo, peto, postulo, prae- 
cipio, precor, pronuntio, quaero, rogo, scisco, timeo, video, volo. 

16 



242 Dependent Constrtictions. 

pacto ut victorem res sequeretur (id.xxviii. 21), having bargained thai 

the property should belong to the victor. 
Regulus captivos reddendos non censuit (Off. i. 13), RegiUus voted thai 

the captives should not be returned. [He said, in giving his opinion, 

captivi non reddendi sunt.] 

e. Verbs of caution and effort. Those denoting an effort to 
hinder may also take quominus or ne : as, 

cura et provide ut nequid-ei desit (Att. ii. 3), take care and see that he 
lacks nothing. 

non deterret sapientem mors quominus . . . (Tusc i. 38), death does 

not deter the wise man from t 6°<r. 
ne facerem impedivit (Fat. i. 1), prevented me from doing. 

/. Verbs of Fearing take the subjunctive, 1 with ne affirmative 
and ne non or ut negative : as, 

ne animum offenderet verebatur (B. G. i. 19), he feared he should 
offend the mind, &*c. 

vereor ut tibi possim concedere (De Or. i. 9), I fear I cannot grant 
you. 

haud sane periculum est ne non mortem optandamputet (Tusc. v. 40), 
there is no danger of not thinking death desirable. 

Remark. — The particle ut is often omitted, — generally after verbs 
of wishing, necessity, permission ; with die, fac ; and in indirect discourse, 
frequently after verbs of commanding and the like. So also ne after 
cave. 

g. With any verbs of the above classes, the poets may use the 
Infinitive : as, 

hortamur fari (JEn. ii. 74), we exhort [him] to speak. 

Clauses of Result. 

332. The clause with ut (negative ut non, etc.), devel- 
oped from result, is used as the object of verbs denot- 
ing the accomplishment of an effort? 

commeatus ut portari possent efficiebat (B. G. ii. 5), he made it possi- 
ble that supplies could be brought. [Lit., he effected that, &c] 



1 With verbs of Fearing the subjunctive with ne is hortatory : timeo ne accidat 
is literally I fear, let it not happen. With ut it may have been either hortatory or 
derived from Purpose. 

2 Verbs and phrases taking an ut-clause of result are accedit, accidit, additur, 
altera est res, committo, consequor, contingit, efficiq, evenit, facto, fit, fieri potest, 
fore, integrum est, mos est, munus est, necesse est, jbrope est, rectum est, relinqui- 
tur, reliquum est, restat, tanti est, tantum abest. 



Substantive Clauses of Result. 243 

a. The substantive clause becomes the subject of such verbs 
in the passive ; and hence is further used as the subject of verbs 
denoting it happens, it remains, it follows, and the like ; and even 
of the simple esse in the same sense, and other phrases : as, 

sequitur ut doceam (N. D. ii. 32), the next thing is to show, &>c. 
accidit ut esset plena luna (B. G. iv. 29), it chanced to be f nil moon. 
accedit ut conturber (Deiot. 1), besides this I am troubled. 
reliquum est quarta virtus ut sit ipsa frugalitas (id.), it remai?is that 

the fourth virtue is thrift. 
quando fuit ut quod licet non liceret (Cael. 20), when was it that what 

is ?iow allowed was not allowed ? 

b. A result clause, with or without ut, frequently follows quam, 
after a comparative : as, 

perpessus est omnia potius quam indicaret (Tusc. i. 22), he endured 
all rather than betray, &>c. 

c. A result clause, with or without ut, is often used elliptically, 
in exclamations, with or without -ne (see 274) : as, 

quanquam quid loquor? te ut ulla res frangat (Cat. i. 9), yet why 

should I ask ? that any thing should bend you ? 
egone ut te interpellem (Tusc. ii. 18), what, I interrupt you ? 

Remark. — The Infinitive, in exclamations, usually refers to some- 
thing actually occurring ; the Subjunctive to something contemplated. 

d. The phrase tantum abest, it is so far [from being the case], 
besides a subject-clause (substantive) with ut, regularly takes 
another ut-clause (of result) correlative with tantum: as, 

tantum abest ut nostra miremur, ut usque eo difflciles ac morosi 
simus, ut nobis non satisfaciat ipse Demosthenes (Or. 29), so far 
from admiring our own matters, we are difficult and captious to that 
degree, that not Demosthenes himself satisfies us. [Here the first 
ut-clause is the subject of abest ; the second, a result clause, after 
tantum ; and the third, after usque eo.] 

e. The expressions facere ut, committere ut, often form a 

periphrasis for the simple verb (compare fore ut for the future 

infinitive) : as, 

invitus feci ut Flaminium e senatu eicerem (Cat. M. 12), it was with 
reluctance that I expelled, &=c. 

f. Rarely, a thought or idea is considered as a result, and 
takes the subjunctive with ut instead of the accusative and infini- 
tive. In this case a demonstrative usually precedes : as, 

altera est res, ut . . . (Off. i. 20), the second point is that, &>c. 

praeclarum illud est, ut eos . . . amemus (Tusc. iii. 29), this is a 
noble thing, that we should love, &>c. 

quae est igitur amentia ut, what folly is there then in demanding, 6°r. I 



244 Dependent Constructions. 

g. Verbs and other expressions which imply hindering and the 
like may take quin when the main verb is negative, formally or 
virtually (compare 319. d) : as, 

facere non possum quin . . . (Att. xii. 27), I cannot avoid \ &c. 
nihil praetermisi quin scribam . . . (Q. F. iii. 3), / have left nothing 
undone to write. 

ut nulla re impedirer quin (Att. iv. 2), that I might be hindered by 
nothing from, &c. 

non humana ulla neque divina obstant quin (Sail. Ep. Mith. 17), 
no human or divine laws prevent \ but that, drv. 

Remark. — This usage is found especially with the phrase non du- 
bito and similar expressions making a kind of Indirect Discourse : as, 

non dubitabat quin ei crederemus (Att. vi. 2), he did not doubt that 
we believed him. 

illud cave dubites quin ego omnia faciam (Fam. v. 20), do not doubt 
that I will do all. 

quis ignorat quin (Flacc. 27), who is ignorant that, &*c. ? 

neque ambigitur quin Brutus pessimo publico id facturus fuerit si 
priorum regum alicui regnum extorsisset (Livy, ii. 1), nor is there 
any question that Brutus, if he had wrested the kingdom from any 
one of the former kings, woidd have done it with the worst results to 
the state [direct discourse, fecisset], 

h. Some verbs and expressions may be used either as verbs of 
saying or as words of co7n?7ianding, effecting, and the like, and may 
be construed accordingly : as, 

sequitur illico esse causas immutabiles (Fat. 12), it follows directly 
that there are unalterable causes. [The regular construction with 
sequor used of a logical sequence.] 

laudem sapientiae statuo esse maximam (Div. v. 13), / hold that the 
glory of wisdom is the greatest. 

statuunt ut decern millia hominum mittantur (B. G. xii 21), they re- 
solve that 10,000 men shall be sent. 

res ipsa monebat tempus esse (Att. x. 8), the thing itself warned that it 

was ti??ie [monere ut, warn to do something\. 
fac mihi esse persuasum (N. D. i. 27), suppose that I am persuaded of 

that [facere ut, accomplish that], 

hoc volunt persuadere, non interire animos (B. G. vi. 13), they wish to 
convince that souls do not perish. 

huic persuadet uti ad hostes transeat (B. G. iii. 18), persuades him to 
pass over to the enemy. 

Note. — The infinitive, with a subject, in this construction is indirect 
discourse, and is to be distinguished from the simple infinitive sometimes 
found with these verbs instead of a subjunctive clause. 



Substantive Clauses: Indirect Questions. 245 

Indicative with Quod. 

333. The clause in the Indicative with quod is used 
(more commonly as Subject) when the statement is re- 
garded as a fact : as, 

alterum est vitium, quod quidam nimis magnum studium conferunt 
(Off. i. 6), it is another fault that some bestow too ?nuch zeal, &=c. 
[Here ut with the subjunctive could be used, meaning that they 
should, or the accusative and infinitive, meaning to more abstractly ; 
quod, makes it a fact that men do, &=c] 

inter inanimum et animal hoc maxime interest, quod animal agit 
aliquid (Ac. ii. 12), this is the chief difference, &°c., that an animal 
aims at something. 

quod rediit nobis mirabile videtur (Off. iii. 31), that he [Regulus] re- 
turned seems wonderful to us. 

vetus illud Catonis admodum scitum est, qui mirari se aiebat quod 
non rideret haruspex haruspicem cum vidisset (de Div. ii. 24), 'tis 
an old and shrewd saying of Cato, that he wondered a soothsayer did 
not laugh when he looked another in the face. [Here rideret is in the 
subjunctive of indirect discourse : see 336.] 

a. In colloquial language, the clause with quod appears as an 
accusative of specification^ corresponding to the English whereas 
(compare 326. a) : as, 

quod de domo scribis (Fam. xiv. 2), as to what you write of the house. 

quod mihi de nostro statu gratularis, minime miramur te tuis prae- 
claris operibus laetari (Att. i. 5), as to your congratulating me on our 
condition, no wonder you are pleased with your own noble works. 

b. Verbs of feeling and its expression take either quod (quia) 
(Causal), or the accusative and infinitive (Indirect Discourse) : as, 

quod scribis . . . gaudeo (Q. F. iii. 1), I am glad that you write. 
quae perfecta esse vehementer laetor (Rose. Am. 47), I greatly re- 
joice that this is finished. 

facio libenter quod earn non possum praeterire (Leg. i. 24), I am glad 
that I cannot pass it by. 

Remark. — Rarely, an apparent substantive clause, with miror and 
similar expressions, is introduced by si (really a Protasis) : as, 

miror si quemquam amicum habere potuit (Lael. 15), I wonder if he 
could ruer have a friend (originally, If this is so, I wonder at it). 

Indirect Questions. 

Note. — An Indirect Question is any sentence or clause, introduced 
by an interrogative word (pronoun, adverb, or particle), which is itself 
the subject or object of a verb, or which depends on any expression im- 
plying uncertainty or doubt. In grammatical form, exclamatory sentences 
are not distinguished from interrogative, as in the third example given 
below. 



246 Dependent Constructions. 

334. An Indirect Question takes its verb in the Sub- 
junctive : as, 

quid ipse sentiam exponam (Div. i. 6), I will explain what I think 
[direct, quid sentio]. 

id possetne fieri consuluit (id. 7), he consulted whether it could be done 
[direct, potestne], 

quam sis audax omnes intellegere potuerunt (Rose. Am. 31), all could 
tinder stand how bold you are [direct, quam es audax /]. 

doleam necne doleam nihil interest (Tusc. ii. 12), it is of no account 
whether I suffer or not [double question]. 

a. The Future Indicative is represented in indirect questions 

by the participle in urus with the subjunctive of esse, — rarely by 

the simple subjunctive : as, 

prospicio qui concursus futuri sint (Div. in Case), I foresee what 
throngs there will be [erunt]. 

quid sit futurum eras, fuge quaerere (Hor. Od. i. 9), forbear to ask 
what will be on the morrow [erit or futurum est], 

b. The Dubitative Subjunctive referring to future time remains 
unchanged except in tense : as, 

[quaeritur] utrum Carthago diruatur, an Carthaginiensibus reddatur 
(De Inv. i. 12), [the question is] shall Carthage be destroyed, or re- 
stored to the Carthaginians. 

nee quisquam satis certum habet, quid aut speret aut timeat (Liv. 
xxii. 7 ), nor is any 07ie well assured tuhat he shall hope or fear. [Here 
the participle with sit could not be used.] 

incerto quid peterent aut vitarent (Liv. xxviii. 36), since it was doubt- 
fid [abl. abs.] what they should seek or shun. 

c. The subject of an indirect question is often, in colloquial 
usage and in poetry, attracted into the main clause as Object 
(accusative of anticipation} : as, 

nosti Marcellum quam tardus sit (Fam. viii. 10) , you know hoiv slow 
Marcel hes is. [Compare, I know thee who thou art.] 

potestne igituu earum rerum quare futurae sint ulla esse praesensio 
(Div. ii. 5), can there be, then, any foreknowledge as to those things , 
why they will occur? [A similar use of the object-genitive.] 

Remark. — In some cases the Object of anticipation becomes Subject 
by a change of voice, and an apparent mixture of relative and interroga- 
tive construction is the result : as, 

quidam saepe in parva pecunia perspiciuntur quam sint leves (Lael. 
17), it is often see?i, in a trifling matter of money, hcau unprincipled 
some people are. 

quemadmodum Pompeium oppugnarent a me indicati sunt (Leg. Ag. 
i. 2), it has been shown by me in what way they attacked Pomp ey. 



Indirect Discourse. 247 

d. In early Latin and poetry, questions which elsewhere would 
have the Subjunctive as indirect often have the Indicative : as, 

non reputat quid laboris est (Amph. 172), he does not consider what a 

task it is. 
vineam quo in agro conseri oportet sic observato (Cato R.R. 6), in 

•what soil a vineyard should be set you must observe thus. 

Note. — These cases are usually considered Direct questions; but 
they occur (as above) where the question cannot be translated as direct 
without distortion of the meaning. 

e. A few expressions properly interrogative are used idiomati- 
cally as indefi7iites, and do not take a subjunctive : such are nescio 
quis, etc., mirum (or nimirum) quam or quantum, immane quan- 
tum, etc. : as, 

qui istam nescio quam indolentiam magnopere laudant (Tusc. iii. 6), 

who g7-eatly extol that painlessness (whatever it is). 
mirum quantum profuit (Liv. ii. 1), it helped marvellously . 

f Occasionally, a virtual indirect question is introduced by si 
in the sense of whether (like if in English, cf. 333. r) : as, 

circumfunduntur hostes si quern aditum reperire possent (B. G. vi. y] ), 

the enemy pour round [to see] if they can find entrance. 
visam si domi est (Heaut. 118), I will go see if he is at home. 

III. — Indirect Discourse. 

Note. — The Indirect Discourse (Oratio Obliqua), with the accusa- 
tive and infinitive, is a comparatively late form of speech, developed in 
the Latin and Greek only, and perhaps separately in each of them. It 
is wholly wanting in the older members of the family, but some forms 
like it have grown up later in English and German. Its essential char- 
acter is that the language of some other person than the writer or 
speaker is compressed into a kind of Substantive Clause, the verb of the 
main clause becoming Infinitive, while modifying clauses, as well as 
hortatory forms of speech, take the Subjunctive. In any case, the per- 
son of the verb is necessarily conformed to the new relation of persons. 
This construction, however, is not limited to the language of some other 
person ; but may be used in any case where the idea may be conceived 
of as expressed in the form of an independent statement, whether by 
another or by one's self. Thus I see, or I think may take the same con- 
struction as he said, whenever the object of seeing or thinking can be 
expressed in the form of a sentence ; since any thing that can be said 
can also be reported indirectly as well as directly. 

The use of the Infinitive in the main clause undoubtedly comes from 
its use as a case-form to complete or modify the action expressed by the 



248 Dependent Constructions. 

verb and its object together. This object in time came to be regarded 
as, and in fact to all intents became, the subject of the infinitive. A 
transition state is found in Sanskrit, which, though it has no indirect 
discourse proper, yet allows an indirect predication after verbs of Saying 
and the like, by means of a predicative apposition, in such expressions 
as, " The maids told the king [that] his daughter [was] bereft of her 
senses." 

The simple form of indirect statement with the infinitive was after- 
wards amplified by introducing any dependent or modifying clauses 
also ; and in Latin it became a common construction, which could be 
expanded to any length, and could report whole speeches, &c, which in 
other languages would have the direct form. (Compare the style of re- 
porting speeches in English, where only the person or tense is changed, 
as is also rarely the case in Sanskrit.) 

The use of the Subjunctive in dependent clauses probably came from 
regarding the statements contained in them as not absolutely true, but 
conditioned upon the trustworthiness of the original speaker, or gram- 
matically, as Apodosis with an implied Protasis, like if we may believe the 
speaker. So the French conditional is often equivalent to " it is said " : 
as, ainsi il aurait a peu prfc double, "it is said to have nearly doubled," 
lit. " would have," i.e. if we should believe the report. So in German, 
Er soil krank sein, " he is said to be sick." 

The Subjunctive standing for hortatory forms of speech is simply the 
usual hortatory subjunctive, with change of person and tense (if neces- 
sary), as in the reporter's style, and in Sanskrit. 

335. A Direct Quotation is one which gives the exact 
words of the original speaker or writer. An Indirect 
Quotation is one which adapts the original words to the 
construction of the sentence in which they are quoted. 

Remark. — The term Indirect Discourse (oratio obliqua) is 

used to designate all clauses — even single clauses in a sentence of dif- 
ferent construction — which indirectly express the word or thought of 
any person other than the speaker or writer, or even his own under 
other circumstances. But it is more strictly used to include those cases 
only in which the form of Indirect Quotation is given to some complete 
propositioit or citation, which may be extended to a narrative or address 
of any length, — as found in the Speeches of Caesar and Livy, — the 
form being dependent on some word of saying, &c, with which it is 
introduced. Such words are dico, respondeo, nuntio, aio ; while inquam 
always serves (in prose) to introduce a Direct Quotation. 

The term Direct Discourse (oratio recta) includes all other forms 
of expression, whether narration, question, exclamation, or command. 



Indirect Discourse, 249 

Indirect Narrative. 

336. In a Declaratory Sentence in indirect discourse, 
the principal verb is in the Infinitive, and its subject in 
the Accusative. All subordinate clauses take the Sub- 
junctive : as, 

esse nonullos quorum auctoritas plurimum valeat (B. G. i. 17), there 
are some, whose influence most prevails, [In direct discourse, sunt 
nonnulli . . . valet. \ 

nisi jurasset, scelus se facturum [esse] arbitrabatur (Verr. i. 47), he 
thought he shotild incur guilty unless he should take the oath [direct, 
nisi juravero, faciam\. 

Stoici negant quidquam esse bonum, nisi quod honestum sit (Fin. 
ii. 21), the Stoics assert that nothing is good but what is right. [The 
verb nego is used in preference to dico with a negative.] 

a. The Subject of the Infinitive in indirect discourse must 
regularly be expressed, even though it is wanting in the direct. 
But it is omitted, rarely, when it would be easily understood : as, 

orator sum, I am an orator ; [dicit] se esse oratorem, [he says] he is 

an orator. 
ignoscere imprudentiae dixit (B. G. iv. 27), he said he pardo?ted their 

rashness. 
rogavi pervenissentne Agrigentum : dixit pervenisse (Verr. iv. 12), 

/ asked whether they [the curtains] had co?ne to Agrigentum : he 

answered that they had. 

Remark. — After a relative, or quam {than), where the verb would 
be the same as that of the main clause, it is usually omitted, and its 
subject is attracted into the accusative : as, 

te suspicor eisdem rebus quibus meipsum commoveri (Cat. M, 1), 
I suspect that you are disturbed by the same things as I. 

b. A subordinate clause merely explanatory, and containing 
statements which are regarded as true independently of the quota- 
tion, takes the Indicative. It often depends merely upon the 
feeling of the writer whether he will use the Indicative or Sub- 
junctive (compare 340-342) : as, 

quis neget haec omnia quae videmus deorum potestate administrari 
(Cat. iii. 9), who can deny that all these things we see are ruled by the 
power of the gods ? 

cujus ingenio putabat ea quae gesserat posse celebrari (Arch. 9), 
by whose genius he thought that those deeds which he had done could 
be celebrated. [Here the fact expressed by quae gesserat, though 
not explanatory, is felt to be true without regard to the quotation : 
quae ges sis set would mean, what Marius claimed to have done.] 



250 Depende?it Constructions. 

Remark. — Some clauses introduced by relatives are really indepen- 
dent, and take the accusative and infinitive. Rarely, also, subordinate 
clauses take this construction. The infinitive construction is regularly 
continued after a comparative with quam : as, 

Marcellus requisivisse dicitur Archimedem ilium, quern cum audisset 
interfectum permoleste tulisse (Verr. iv. 58), Marcellus is said to 
have sought for Archimedes, and when he heard that he was slain, 
to have been greatly distressed. 

unumquemque nostrum censent philosophi mundi esse partem, ex 
quo [ = et ex eo] illud natura consequi (Fin.iii. 19), the philosophers 
say that each one of us is a part of the universe, from which this nat- 
urally follows. 

quemadmodum si non dedatur obses pro rupto se foedus habiturum, 
sic deditam inviolatam ad suos remissurum (Liv. ii. 13), [he says] 
as in case the hostage is not given up he will consider the treaty as 
broken, so if given up he will return her unharmed to her friends. 
addit se prius occisum iri ab eo quam me violatum iri (Att. ii. 20), he 
adds that he himself will be killed by him, before I shall be injured. 

The subjunctive with or without ut also occurs with quam 
(see 332. b). 

Conditions. 

337. In a Conditional Sentence, the indicative in Apodosis is in 

any case represented by the corresponding tense of the Infinitive. 

The subjunctive is represented by the Future Participle with 

fuisse for the pluperfect, and the Future Infinitive for the other 

tenses (compare the use of the participle in urus with fui for the 

pluperfect subjunctive). The Protasis, as a dependent clause, 

is in all cases Subjunctive : as, 

se non defuturum [esse] pollicetur, si audacter dicere velint (B. C. i. 
I ), he promises not to fail, if they will speak their ??iinds boldly [non 
deero si voletis]. 

Note. — The future infinitive, representing the imperfect subjunctive 
in apodosis, is for some reason very rare, and only four or five examples 
occur in classic authors. On the contrary, the form with fuisse is quite 
common, even when in the Direct we should expect the Imperfect. 

Questions. 

338. A Question coming immediately after a verb of asking or 
the like is treated as an Indirect Question (see above, 334) ; but 
questions — generally rhetorical — coming in course of a long 
indirect discourse are treated like Declaratory Sentences : as, 

num etiam recentium injuriarum memoriam [se] deponere posse (B. 
G. i. 14), could he lay aside the niemory of rece?rt wrongs? [num pos- 
sum ? ] 

quern signum daturum fugientibus ? quern ausurum Alexandro suc- 
cedere (Q. C. hi. 5), who will give the signal on the retreat? who will 
dare to succeed Alexa7ider ? 



Lidirect Discourse. 



251 



Remark. — Generally real questions, expecting an answer 
(chiefly in the second person), take the subjunctive. Questions 
asked by the dubitative subjunctive must retain the subjunctive 
(see 334. b). 

Commands. 

339. All Imperative forms of speech take the Sub- 
junctive in indirect discourse: as, 

reminisceretur veteris incommodi populi Romani (B. G. 13), remem- 
ber [said he] the ancient disaster, &*c. [reminiscere]. 
ne committeret ut (ib.), do not [said he] bring it about [noli committere]. 
finem orandi faciat (id. 20), let him make an end of entreaty [fac]. 

The following example may serve to illustrate some of the fore- 
going principles in a connected address : — 

Direct Discourse. 
Si pacem populus Romanus 
cum Helvetiis faciet, in earn par- 
tem ibunt atque ibi erunt Helvetii, 
ubi eos Caesar constituerit atque 
esse voluerit : sin bello persequi 
perseverabit, reminiscere [inquit] et 
veteris incommodi populi Romani, 
et pristinae virtutis Helvetiorum. 
Quod improvisounum pagum ador- 
tus es, cum ii qui flumen transierant 
suis auxilium ferre non possent, ne 
ob earn rem aut tuae magno opere 
virtuti tribueris, aut nos despexeris 
nos ita a patribus majoribusque 
nostris didicimus, ut magis virtute 
quam dolo contendamtis, aut insidiis 
nitamur. Quare noli committere, ut 
hie locus ubi constitimus ex calami- 
tate populi Romani et internecione 
exercitus nomen capiat, aut memo- 
riam prodat. 



Indirect Discourse. 
Si pacem populus Romanus 
cum Helvetiis faceret, in earn par- 
tem ituros atque ibi futuros Helve- 
tios, ubi eos Caesar constituisset 
atque esse voluisset : sin bello per- 
sequi perseveraret, reminisceretur 
et veteris incommodi populi Ro- 
mani, et pristinae virtutis Helveti- 
orum. Quod improviso unum 
pagum adortus esset, cum ii qui 
flumen transissent suis auxilium 
ferre non possent, ne ob earn rem 
aut suae magno opere virtuti tri- 
bueret, aut ipsos despiceret : se ita a 
patribus majoribusque suis didi- 
cisse, ut magis virtute quam dolo 
contenderent, aut insidiis niterentur. 
Quare ne committeret, ut is locus 
ubi constitissent ex calamitate pop- 
uli Romani et internecione exerci- 
tus nomen caperet, aut memoriam 
proderet. B. G. i. 13. 



Intermediate Clauses. 

Xote. — Besides the modal dependent clauses now mentioned, another 
construction is found in Latin, which has no English equivalent what- 
ever ; namely, that of a subjunctive clause subordinate to another which 
is itself subordinate. This is found when any infinitive or subjunctive con- 



252 Dependent Constructions. 

struction — itself dependent on some leading verb — has another clause 
dependent on it. In this case the verb of the latter is almost invariably 
in the subjunctive, subject, however, to the following conditions : 1. that 
if the subordinate clause is inserted for mere definition or explanation, 
so that it may be regarded as true independently of the connection in 
which it stands, its verb will be in the indicative ; 2. that if, on the 
other hand, it depends on an infinitive or subjunctive so as to become logi- 
cally a part of the same expression, its verb must regularly be in the sub- 
junctive. It often depends entirely upon the feeling of the writer 
whether the Indicative or Subjunctive shall be used. 

340. A Relative or other subordinate clause takes the 
Subjunctive, when it expresses the thought of some 
other person than the speaker or writer {informal I?i- 
direct discourse), or when it is an integral part of a 
Subjunctive clause or equivalent Infinitive 1 {Attraction). 

341. The Subjunctive is used in intermediate clauses 
to express the thought of some other person — 

a. In subordinate clauses in Indirect Discourse (see 336). 

b. When the clause depends upon another containing a wish, a 
command, or a question expressed indirectly, though not indirect 
discourse proper : as, 

animal sentit quid sit quod deceat (Off. i. 6), an animal feels what it is 
that is fit. 

hunc sibi ex animo scrupulum, qui se dies noctesque stimulet ac pun- 
gat, ut evellatis postulat (Rose. Am. 2), he begs you to pluck from his 
heart this doubt that goads and stings him day and night. [Here the 
relative clause is not a part of the Purpose expressed in evellatis, 
but is an assertion made by the subject of postulat.] 

c. When the main clause of a quotation is merged in the verb 
of saying, or some modifier of it : as, 

nisi restituissent statuas, vehementer iis minatur (Verr. iii. 67), he 
threatens them violently unless they should restore the statues. [Here 
the main clause, "that he will inflict punishment," is contained in 
minatur .] 

prohibitio tollendi, nisi pactus esset, vim adhibebat pactioni (id. iv. 14), 
the forbidding to take away unless he came to terms gave force to the 
bargain. 

d. When a reason or an explanatory fact is introduced by a 
relative or by quod (rarely quia) : 2 as, 



1 See note at head of Indirect Discourse, p. 247. 

2 This usage probably originates in Apodosis, the condition being the supposed 
truth cf the speaker, the main subject. (See Indirect Discourse, Note, p. 248.) 



Intermediate Clauses. 253 

Favonius mihi quod defendissem leviter succensuit (Att. iii. 1), Favo- 
nius gently c hided me for my defence. 

Paetus omnes libros quos pater suus reliquisset mihi donavit (id.), 
Paetus presented me all the books which [he said] his father had left. 

Remark. — Under this head, even what the speaker himself thought 
under other circumstances may have the subjunctive. So also with 
quod, even the verb of saying may take the subjunctive. To this use 
also belong non quia, non quod, introducing a reason expressly to deny 
it. Non quo, non quin, introduce a result clause, but with nearly the 
same meaning as non quod : as, 

pugiles ingemiscunt, non quod doleant, sed quia omne corpus inten- 
ditur . . . (Tusc. ii. 23), boxers groan not with pain , but, &*c. 

non quia philosophia . . . percipi non posset (id. i. 1), not that philos- 
ophy cannot be acquired, &c. 
non quoniam hoc sit necesse (Verr. ii. 9), not that this is necessary. 

342. A clause depending upon another subjunctive 
clause (or equivalent Infinitive) will also take the sub- 
junctive if it is regarded as an integral part of that 
clause : 1 as, 

non pugnabo quominus utrum veils eligas (Div. C. 18), / will not 

oppose your taking which you will. 
imperat, dum res adjudicetur, hominem ut asservent : cum judica- 

tum sit, ad se adducant (Verr. iv. 22), he orders them, while the affair 

is under judgment, to keep the man ; when he is judged, to bring him 

to him. 

etenim quis tarn dissoluto animo est, qui haec cum videat, tacere ac 
neglegere possit (Rose. Am. 11), for who is so reckless of spirit, that, 
when he sees these things, he can keep silent and pass them by ? 

si tibi hoc Siculi dicerent, nonne id dicerent quod cuivis probare 
deberent (Div. C. 6), if the Sicilians said this to you, would they not 
say a thing which they must prove to everybody ? 

mos est Athenis laudari in contione eos qui sint in proeliis interfecti 
(Or. 44), it is the custom at Athens for those to be publicly eulogized who 
have been slain in battle. 



1 The subjunctive in this use is either a Protasis or Apodosis, and partakes of 
the nature of the clause on which it depends, — or at least of its original nature. 
In all cases except Purpose and Result, this is clearly seen. In these, the case is 
undoubtedly the same; as the Purpose has, of course, a future sense, and the 
Result is a branch of characteristic. (See Note at head.) 

It is often difficult to distinguish between this construction and the preceding. 
Thus, in imperat ut ea fiant quae opus essent, essent may stand for sunt, and 
then will be Indirect Discourse (under 336. b) ; or it may stand for erunt, and will 
then be Protasis (under 337). 



254 



Synopsis of Constructions. 



SYNOPSIS OF CONSTRUCTIONS. 
I. — Constructions of Cases. 
Genitive. 
' i. of Possession, 214 l 

1. Subjective :^ 2. of Source or Material, 214. e. 

3. of Quality (with Adjectives), 215. 

2. Partitive : of the Whole, after words designating a Part, 216. 
' 1. with Nouns of action and feeling, 217. 

2 with Adiectives i Relative adjective or Verbal, 218. 

3. Objective : \ 2# Wltn Aa J ectlves \ f or Specification (later use), 218. e 
ith Verbs \ of Mem0 J7 and Feeling, 219, 221. 

[ of Accusing, &c. (secondary obj.), 220. 

Dative. 

at ~ rw,«*«„ 1 1 \ { &• with Transitives, 22 c;. 

1. As Indirect Object (general use): j ^ wkh Intransitive ' g> 3 | 6< 

a. of Possession (with*™*), 231. 

b. of Agency (with Gerund), 232. 

c. of Service (predicate use), 233. 

d. of Fitness, &c. (with Adjectives), 234. 

e. of Reference (dativus commodi), 235. 



Special or 
Uses: 



Idiomatic 



1. Primary Object: 



Accusative, 
a. Directly affected by the Action, 237. 
*. Effect of the Action \ ™ n § P r ° d " ced .'. 2 37- 



I Cognate Accusative, 238. 
(a. Predicate Accusative (of Naming, &c.),239-tf. 
2. Secondary Object :{ b. of Asking or Teaching (the Thing), 239. c. 
[c. of Concealing (the Person), 239. d. 

a. Adverbial, 240. a. 

b. of Specification (Greek Accusative), 240. c. 

c. of Extent and Duration, 240. e. 

d. of Exclamation, 240. d. 

e. Subject of Infinitive (Indirect Discourse), 240./. 

Ablative. 

a. of Separation, Privation, and Want, 243. 

b. of Source (participles of origin, &c), 244. 

c. of Cause (gaudeo, dignus^ &c), 245. 

d. of Agent (with ab after Passives), 246. 

e. of Comparison (than), 247. 
' a. of Means and Instrument, 248. 

b. of Accompaniment (with cum), 248.0. 

c. of Object of the Deponents utor, &c, 249. 

d. of Degree of Difference, 250. 

e. of Quality (with Adjectives), 251. 

f. of Price and Exchange, 252. 

g. of Specification, 253. 

a. of Place where (commonly with in), 254. 

b. of Idiomatic Expressions, 254. a. 

c. of Time and Circumstance, 255. 

d. Ablative Absolute, 255. 



3. Idiomatic Uses : 



1. Ablative [from) 



2. Instrumental (with) , 



3. Locative (in, on, at) : 



The figures refer to Sections of the Revised Grammar. 



Synopsis of Constructions. 



255 



II. — Syntax of the Verb. 

i. — Moods and Tenses. 

i. Indicative : Direct Assertion or Question ; Absolute Time, 264. 

Independent : Wish, Exhortation, Command, Question 
(dubitative), 265-268. 

' Purpose or Result (with tit, ne), 317-319. 
Characteristic (Relative Clause), 320. 
Relative Time (with czim), 325. 

Conditions \ ? ut Vf e (primary tenses), 307. 

/ Contrary to Fact, 30b. 
Intermediate (Indirect Discourse), 340. 
Indirect Questions, 334. 
Direct Commands (often subjunctive), 269. 
[ b. Statutes, Laws and Wills (Future), 289. d. 

Prohibitions (early or poetic use), 269. a. 
'a. Subject of esse and Impersonal verbs, 270. 
b Obiect I Complementary Infinitive, 271. 

I Indirect Discourse (with sub j. -accusative), 272. 



2. Subjunctive: 



3. Imperative : 



b. Dependent 
(Chap. V.) 



4. Infinitive: 



C Purpose (poetic or Greek use), 273. 
c. Idiomatic Uses \ Exclamation (with subject-accus.), 274. 
( Historical Infinitive, 275. 

2. — Noun and Adjective Forms, 



1. Participles 



Gerund or 
Gerundive : 



3. Supine : 



a. Present and Perfect 



( Simple Predicate, 291. 

J Periphrastic Perfect (passive) 

r 



Predicate of Circumstance, 292. 
[ Descriptive (Indirect Discourse). 

( Periphrastic with esse, 293. 

j Periphrastic with fui ( = Pluperfect Subj.). 

( as Descriptive Adjective, 294. 
Gerundive < Periphrastic with esse. 

( of Purpose with certain verbs. 

Genitive as Objective Genitive, 298. 

Dative, with Adjectives (of Fitness), Nouns, Verbs, 299. 
1 c. Accusative, with certain Prepositions, 300. 
[ d. Ablative, of Means, Comparison, or with Prepositions, 301. 
j a. Former Supine (in 11m), with Verbs of Motion, 302. 
{ b. Latter Supine (in u), chiefly with Adjectives, 303. 



b. Future 



b. 



3. — Conditional Sentences. 
1. Simple Present or Past Conditions, nothing implied as to fulfilment: 
Indicative, Present or Past Tenses, 306. 

[ a. More vivid (probable) : Future Indicative, 307. 
\ b. Less vivid (improbable) : Present Subjunctive. 



2. Future Conditions : 



Conditions Contrary ( a. Present : Imperfect Subjunctive, 308. 
to Fact: 



4. General Conditions : 



S- Implied Conditions : 



\ b. Past : Pluperfect Subjunctive, 308. 

' a. Indefinite: 2d per son, Subjunctive, 309. 
b. Repeated Action : Imperfect or Pluperfect with 
Indicative in Apodosis. 

-p^ . , ( in clause of Fact, Wish, &c, 310. 
a. Disguised j in ParticipiHl Expression, 310. 

a r\ • i- a \ Potential Subjunctive, 311. 
[ *' umittea ( Subjunctive of Modesty, 311. 



§75 



2$6 General Ritles of Syntax. 

General Rules of Syntax. 

1. Nouns meaning the same thing agree in Case. 

2. Adjectives agree with nouns in Gender, Number, and Case. 

3. Possessive adjectives are used for the Genitive, and in any 

case may have a genitive in agreement. 

4. Relatives agree with their antecedent in Gender and Number ; 

their Case depending on the construction of their clause. 

5. A Verb agrees with its subject in Number and Person. 

6. Two or more singular subjects — also collective nouns, with 

quisque and uterque — may take a plural verb. 

7. The Subject of a finite verb is in the Nominative. 

8. A Noun used to limit or define another, and not meaning the 

same thing, is put in the Genitive. 

9. The Genitive is used to denote the author, owner, source, and 

(with adjectives) measure or quality. 

10. Words denoting a Part are followed by the genitive of the 

word denoting the Whole. 

11. Certain genitives of Quantity — as, magni, parvi, nihili, pluris, 

minoris, — are used to denote indefinite Value. 

12. Many words of memory and feeling, knowledge or ignorance, 

likeness or nearness, fulness and want — also verbals, and 
participles used as adjectives — take the genitive. 

13. Verbs of accusing, condemning, acquitting, and admonishing 

take the genitive of the Charge or Penalty. 

14. The Dative is the case of the Indirect Object. 

15. Words of likeness, fitness, nearness, service, and help, are 

followed by the dative. 

16. Verbs meaning to favor, help, please, trust, and their con- 

traries ; also to believe, persuade, command, obey, serve, 
resist, envy, threaten, pardon, and spare, take the dative. 

17. The dative is used with esse to denote the Owner ; also with 

the participle in dus to denote the Agent. 

18. Most verbs compounded with ad, ante, con, in, i7iter, ob,post, 

prae,pro, sub, super, take the dative. 

19. Verbs of giving, telling, sending, and the like — sometimes of 

comparing and taking away — take the accusative and dative. 

20. The dative is used to denote the Purpose or End ; often with 
another dative of the person or thing affected. 

21. The Accusative is the case of the Direct Object. 

22. The Subject of the Infinitive mood is in the accusative. 

23. Duration of time and extent of space are in the accusative. 

24. The accusative is used adverbially, or for specification. 

25. Verbs of asking and teaching take two accusatives, one of a 
person, and the other of a thing. 



General Rules of Syntax. 257 

26. The Ablative is used of cause, manner, means, instrument, 

quality, specification, and price. 

27. The Voluntary Agent after a passive verb is in the ablative 

with ab. 

28. Words denoting separation, and plenty or want, — also opus 

and usus, signifying need, — govern the ablative. 

29. Participles denoting birth or origin take the ablative. 

30. The adjectives dignus, indignus, with many verbals, as con- 

tentus, laetus, praeditus, take the ablative. 

31. The deponents utor, fruor, fungor, potior, vescor, and their 

compounds, take the ablative. 

32. The comparative degree may be followed by the ablative. 

33. Degree of difference is put in the ablative. 

34. Time at or within which is put in the ablative. 

35. A subject and predicate in the ablative are used to define the 

time or circumstances of an action (Ablative Absolute). 

36. The name of the Town where is in form like the genitive of 

singular names in us, a, um, otherwise dative or ablative ; of 
that whither in the accusative, and whence in the ablative. 
So of domus rus (also, humi, belli, militiae), and many names of Islands. 

37. With other words (including names of countries) Prepositions 

must be used to denote where, whither, or whence. 

38. The Infinitive is used like a neuter noun, as the Subject or 

Object, or to complete the action of a verb. 

39. The Infinitive is used, with subject-accusative, with expres- 

sions of knowing, thinking, telling, and perceiving. 

40. The Infinitive is often used for the tenses of the indicative 

in narration (Historical Infinitive). 

41. The Gerund, governing the case of its verb, or the Gerund- 

ive in agreement with a noun, is construed as a verbal noun. 

42. The Supine in um is used after verbs of motion, to express 

the purpose of the motion ; the Supine in u with adjectives. 

43. The Subjunctive is used independently to denote a wish, 

command, or concession, also in questions of doubt. 

44. Relatives or Conjunctions implying purpose or result — also of 

characteristic and of relative time — require the Subjunctive. 

45. Indirect Questions take a verb in the Subjunctive. 

46. The Subjunctive present and perfect are used in future condi- 

tions ; the imperfect and pluperfect, in those contrary to fact. 

47. Dependent Clauses in Indirect Discourse, or in a subjunc- 

tive construction, take the Subjunctive. 

48. In the sequence of Tenses, primary tenses are fo]Jowed in the 

Subjunctive by primary, and secondary by secondary. 
For the government of Prepositions, see page 101. 
For the constructions of Cases, see pages 145-183. 



258 A rrangement. 



Chapter VI. — Arrangement. 

Note. — While in Latin the words do not follow the order of 
construction, yet they have a regular arrangement ; which, however, 
is constantly modified for emphasis, harmony, and clearness. 

Normal Order. 

343. Regularly the subject stands first, followed by its 
modifiers ; the verb last, preceded by the words which 
depend upon it : as, 

civis Romanus sum (not sum Romanus civis). 

voluptates blandissimae dominae majores partes animi a virtute de- 
torquent (Off. ii. 10). 

Remark. — This is the order usually to be followed where no empha- 
sis is thrown on any particular word, as in simple narration of fact : as, 

Hannibal, imperator factus, | proximo triennio omnes gentes Hispa- 
niae | bello subegit (Nep. Hann. 3). 

a. A predicate nominative, as the most important part of the 
predicate, is often placed after the copula : as, 

qui Athenis est mortuus (id. 24). 

haec ad judicandum sunt facillima (id. iii. 6). 

b. The forms of esse meaning there is, d^c, often come first in 
the sentence : as, 

sunt quaedam officia quae aliis magis quam aliis debeantur (id. i. 18). 

c. A numeral adjective, or one essential to the meaning of the 
phrase, goes before its noun ; one simply descriptive commonly 
follows : as, 

omnes homines decet. 

est viri magni rebus agitatis punire sontes (Off. i. 24). 

omnis actio vacare debet temeritate et neglegentia (id. 29). 

cum aliqua perturbatione (id. i. 38). 

Laelius et sapiens et amicitiae gloria excellens (Lasl. 1). 

d. A Demonstrative pronoun precedes the noun, Relatives 
or Interrogatives stand first in their sentence or clause, Adverbs 
stand directly before the word they qualify. 



Emphasis, 259 

Emphasis. 

Note. — Though the order of words in a Latin sentence often seems 
quite arbitrary, yet it will be observed that almost every arrangement 
produces some effect, such as must usually be given in English by em- 
phasis, or stress of voice. In actual practice, what may be called the 
normal order is rarely found. It is continually altered, either for the 
sake of Emphasis, — to throw stress on the more important words ; or for 
the sake of Euphony, — to make the sentence more agreeable to the ear. 

344. The normal order of words may be changed or 
reversed for the sake of emphasis. 

a. Particularly, the verb comes first, and the subject last. This 
makes either or both emphatic : as, 

dicebat idem C. Curio (Off. ii. 17). 

b. Any word closely connected with the preceding sentence 
comes first, and with the following last : as, 

ac duabus iis personis quas supra dixi tertia adjungitur (Off. i. 32). 
objecit [Cato] ut probrum M. Nobiliori quod is in provinciam poetas 

duxisset ; duxerat autem consul ille in iEtoliam ut scimus Ennium 

(Tusc. i. 2). 
maxime perturbantur officia in amicitiis ; quibus et non tribuere quod 

recte possis, et tribuere quod non sit aequum, contra ofhcium est 

(Off. iii. 10). 

c. A word or phrase inserted between the parts of compound 
tenses becomes emphatic : as, 

ille reprehensus a multis est (N. D. ii. 38). 

d. A modifier of a noun and adjective or participle is often 
placed between them. So in the gerundive construction : as, 

de communi hominum memoria (Tusc. i. 24). 

de uno imperatore contra praedones constituendo (Manil. 17). 

e. Sometimes a noun and its attribute are separated as far as 
possible, so as to include less important words : as, 

objurgationes etiam nonnunquam incidunt necessariae (Off. i. 38). 

f. One pair of ideas is set off against another, either in the 
same order {anaphora), or in exactly the opposite order (chiasmus). 
The latter, which is very common, has its name from the Greek X, 
on account of the cross arrangement. Thus, 

rerum copia verborum copiam gignit (De Or. iii. 3, 31). 
pro vita hominis nisi hominis vita reddatur (B. G. vi. 16). 
leges supplicio improbos africiunt, defendunt ac tuentur bonos (Fin. 
iii. 5). 

non igitur utilitatem amicitia, sed utilitas amicitiam consecuta est 
(Lael. 14). Here the arrangement of cases only is chiastic, that of 
ideas is regular.] 



260 Arrangement. 

g. Different forms of the same word are often placed together, 
also words from the same root. 

h. A favorite order with the poets is the interlocked, by which 
the attribute of one pair comes between the parts of the other. 
This is often joined with chiasmus : as, 

et super jecto pavidae natarunt aequore damae (Hor. Od. i. 2, n). 
arma nondum expiatis uncta cruoribus (id. ii. I, 5). 

t. Almost universally the main word of the sentence is put 
first (rarely last). This may be simply the emphatic word, con- 
taining the idea most prominent in the writer's mind {emphasis) ; 
or it may be contrasted with some other word preceding or follow- 
ing (antithesis). 

Special Rules. 

345. The following are special rules of arrange- 
ment : — 

a. Prepositions regularly precede their nouns (except tenus 
and versus) ; but the monosyllabic prepositions are often placed 
between a noun and adjective : as, 

quern ad modum ; quam ob rem ; magno cum metu ; omnibus cum 
copiis ; nulla in re. 

b. Itaque regularly comes first in its sentence or clause ; enim, 
autem, vero, quoque, never first, but usually second, sometimes 
third if the second word is emphatic ; quidem never first, but after 
the emphatic word ; ne . . . quidem include the emphatic word 
or words. 

c* Inquam, inquit, credo, opinor, quaeso, used parenthetically, 
always follow one or more words. 

d. The negative precedes the word it especially affects ; but if 
it belongs to no one word, it begins the sentence. 

e. In the arrangement of clauses, the Relative clause more often 
comes first in Latin, and usually contains the antecedent noun : as, 

quos amisimus cives eos Martes vis perculit (" those citizens, whom, 
<5rY." : Cic. Marc. 6). 

f. Any clause, principal or subordinate, is suspended, when any 
subordinate connective appears between the first and last word of 
that clause ; and the rest of the clause does not appear till the 
whole of the subordinate one is finished. Thus, — 

Atque ego, ut vidi quos maximo furore et scelere esse inflammatos 
sciebam, eos vobiscum esse et Romae remansisse, in eo omnes dies 
noctesque consumpsi, ut quid agerent, quid molirentur, sentirem ac 
viderem. — Cic. Cat. iii. 2. 






Structure of the Period. 261 

Here the leading clause Atque ego is suspended by the relative 
clause ut vidi, which again is interrupted by the words quos . . 
sciebam. The latter clause being now complete, the object of vidi 
is seen to be the infinitive clause eos . . remansisse, the antecedent 
coming after the relative. The main clause is now resumed, its 
verb being evidently consumpsi, which is the predicate of ego. 
This, again, is followed by ut , . viderem in apposition with eo, 
this clause being itself suspended by the indirect questions quid . . 
molirentur. 

Structure. 

Note. — Latin expresses the relation of words to each other by in- 
flection rather than by position, like modern languages. Hence its struc- 
ture not only admits of great variety in the arrangement of words, but 
is especially favorable to that form of sentence which is called a Period. 
In a period, the sense is expressed by the sentence as a whole, and is 
held in suspense till the delivery of the last word, which usually ex- 
presses the main action or motive. 

An English sentence does not often admit this form of structure. It 
was imitated, sometimes with great skill and beauty, by many of the 
early writers of English prose ; but its effect is better seen in poetry, in 
such a passage as the following : — 

<k High on a throne of royal state, which far 
Outshone the wealth of Ormus and of Ind, 
Or where the gorgeous East with richest hand 
Showers on her kings barbaric pearl and gold, 
Satan exalted sat." 

Paradise Lost, Book II. 1-5. 

But in argument or narrative, the best English writers more commonly 
give short clear sentences, each distinct from the rest, and saying one 
thing by itself. In Latin, on the contrary, the story or argument is 
viewed as a whole ; and a logical relation among all its parts is carefully 
indicated, forming one compact group. Hence — 

346. In the structure of the Period, the following rules 
are to be observed : — 

a. In general the main subject or object is put in the main 
clause, not in the subordinate ones : as, 

Hannibal cum recensuisset auxilia Gades profectus est, when Hannibal 
had reviewed, 6°r. 

Volsci exiguam spem in armis, alia undique abscissa, cum tentassent, 
praeter cetera adversa, loco quoque iniquo ad pugnam congressi, ini- 
quiore ad fugam, cum ab omni parte caederentur, ad preces a certamine 



262 Arrangement, 



'£> ' 



§76 



versi, dedito imperatore traditisque armis, sub jugum missi, cum singulis 
vestimentis, ignominiae cladisque pleni dimittuntur (Liv. iv. 10). [Here 
the main fact is the return of the Volscians, which is given in the first and 
last words of the period ; the circumstances of the surrender, &c, which 
in English would be detailed in a number of brief independent sentences, 
are put in the several subordinate clauses.] 

b. Clauses are usually arranged in the natural order of time or 
logical sequence, — cause before result ; purpose, manner, and the 
like before the act. 

There are, however, many exceptions, from the tendency to put 
the more important first, or else last. 

c. In co-ordinate clauses, the copulative conjunctions are fre- 
quently omitted (asyndeton), the connection being made clear by 
the position of words and by antithesis. 

d. A change of subject, where required, is marked by the intro- 
duction of a Pronoun, if the new subject has already been men- 
tioned in the preceding sentence. But the change of subject may 
often be avoided by the change of structure, — the less important 
being merged in the greater by aid of participles or subordinate 
phrases : as, 

dolorem si non potero frangere occultabo, if I cannot conquer the pain, 

I will hide IT. 
quern ut barbari incendium effugisse viderunt, telis eminus emissis 

interfecerunt, when the barbarians saw that he had escaped, THEY threw 

darts at HIM, and killed HIM. 
celeriter confecto negotio, in hiberna legiones reverterunt, the matter 

was soon finished, AND the legions, d^c. 



PART THIRD. 



RULES OF VERSE (PROSODY). 



Chapter I. — Quantity. 

Note. — The earliest poetry of the Indo-European people seems to 
have been originally rather an accented poetry, more like our own, with- 
out regard to the natural quantity of the syllables. But the Greeks 
developed a form of poetry which, like music, regarded very carefully the 
natural quantities of syllables ; and the Latins borrowed their forms in 
classical times from them. Hence Latin poetry does not depend, like 
ours, upon accent and rhyme ; but is measured, like musical strains, by 
the length of syllables. Especially does it differ from ours in not regard- 
ing the accent of the word, but substituting for that an entirely different 
system of metrical accent or ictus (see 358), which depended upon the 
character of the measure used, falling regularly on the long syllables. 
Each syllable is considered as either long or short, — in Quantity or 
length (not in Quality or sound, as we speak of the long or short vowel- 
sounds in English) ; a long syllable being generally reckoned in length 
equal to two short ones (for exceptions see 355. c, d). 

The quantity of radical or stem-syllables — as of short a in pater or 
of long a in mater — can be learned only by observation or practice, 
unless determined by the general rules of Quantity. Most of the rules 
of Prosody are only arbitrary rules for the purpose of memory ; the 
syllables being long or short because the ancients pronounced them so. In 
those cases which cannot be conveniently grouped, the quantity is shown 
by the actual practice of the ancients, and is said to be determined by 
the authority of Poets, — the principal means we have of learning it. In 
some inscriptions, however, the long vowels are distinguished in various 
ways, — by marks over the letters, or by doubling. 

Owing to the practice of Roman poets of borrowing very largely from 
the poetry and mythology of the Greeks, numerous Greek words, es- 
pecially proper names, make an important part of Latin poetry. These 
words are generally employed in accordance with the Greek, and not the 
Latin, laws of quantity. Where these vary in any important point, they 
will be noticed in the rules given below. 



§77 



264 Prosody. 

1. — General Rules. 

347. The following are General Rules of Quantity 
(compare 18) : — 

a. Vowel. A vowel before another vowel or h is Short : as, 
via, traho. But — 

1. In the genitive form ius, i is long. It is, however, sometimes 
made short in verse ; and in alterius is commonly short. 

2. In the fifth declension (genitive and dative singular), e is 
long between two vowels : as, diet; but is short in fidei, rei, spei. 

3. In fio, i is long, except when followed by er : B.s,fw, flebam, 
flam, fieri, fierem . 

4. In the terminations aius and eius, a and e are long: as in 
Gains, Pompeius ; in some forms of aio, and in genitives in ai. 

5. In many Greek proper names, the vowel in Latin represents 
a long vowel or diphthong, and is consequently long: as, Troes, 
Thalia, herods. But many Greek words are more or less Latinized 
in this respect : as, Academia, chorea. 

6. In eheu and dius (for divus), and sometimes in Diana and 
ohe, the first syllable is long. 

b. Diphthong. A Diphthong is Long : as, foedus, cui, cae- 
lum, deinde (u with q does not count as a vowel). 

But the preposition prae in compounds is generally short before 
a vowel (as in prae-ustis, JEn. vii. 524). 

c. Contraction. A vowel formed by contraction (Crasis) is 
Long: as i in nil (for nihil) ; currus (genitive, for curruis). But 
not where two syllables are united by Synaeresis, as in parietibus 
(par-yetibus). This is sometimes called Synezesis. 

d. Position. A syllable in which a short vowel comes before 
two consonants or a double consonant — also before the letter j — 
is long : as, 7nagnus, dux, pejor, et ventis, gdza (but adhuc). 

But if the two consonants are a mute followed by 1 or r, the 
syllable is Common, — that is, it maybe either long or short in 
verse : as in alacris, patribus, refluo. 1 

Remark. — The y or v resulting from synaeresis has the effect of a 
consonant : as, abietis, Jiuvtortim [fliivius). And conversely, when the 
semivowel is vocalized, quantity is lost : as in sthiae = silvae (Hor.). 



1 This usage is more or less arbitrary, and varies with different words : thus 
(in Virgil) the a in pair is, etc., is almost invariably short ; and the i in nigro- and 
its derivatives is almost always long. In bijiigls, quadrijugis, the i is short. 



Quantity of Final Syllables, 265 

e. In Early Latin, s at the end of words was not sounded, and 
hence does not make position with another consonant. In many 
other cases in the comic poets two consonants do not make position, 
especially in pronouns and particles : as, lile, iste, nempe. 

Remark. — A short syllable, made long by the rule in d, is said to be 
long by Position : as, in docetne. In docesne, the same syllable is long by 
the general rule. The rules of Position do not, in general, apply to 
final vowels. 

3. — Final Syllables. 

348. The Quantity of Final Syllables is determined by 
the following Rules : — 

1. Words of one syllable ending in a vowel are Long : as, me, 
tu, hi, ne. 

The attached particles -ne, -que, -ve, -cS, -pte, and re- (red-) 
are short ; se- is long : as, secedit, exercitumque reducit. But re 
is often long in religio, (relligio), retuli (rettuli), repuli {reppuli). 

2. Nouns and adjectives of one syllable are Long : as, sol, 
os (oris), bos, vis. 

Exceptions. — cor (sometimes long),///, lac, mel, os (ossis) vir. 

3. Most monosyllabic Particles are Short : as, an, in, cis, nee, 
per. But eras, cur, en, non, quln, sin — with adverbs in c : as, 
hie, hue, sic — are long ; tot and quot indeclinable are also short. 

4. Final a in words declined by cases is Short, except in the 
ablative singular of the first declension ; in all other words it is 
Long: as, ea Stella (nom.), cum ea Stella (abl.) ; frustra, voca 
(imperat.), postea, triginta ; also, qua (for quae, plural). 

Exceptions. — eia, itd, quia, fiuta {suppose) ; and, in late use, 
triginta, etc, 

5. Final e is Short, as in nube, ducite, saepe. Except — 

1. In nouns of the fifth declension : w$>, fide (also fame), hodie 
(hoc die), quare (qua re). 

2. In adverbs formed from adjectives of the first and second 
declension, with others of like form : as, alte, misere, aperte, 
saepissime. 

3. In the imperative singular of the second conjugation: as, 
vide, mone. 

Exceptions. — bene, male ; fere, fermej also (rarely), cave", 
hab2, tac2, valg, vid2 ; infern^ sup erne. 



266 Prosody. 

6. Final i is long : as in turri, fill. audi. But it is Common in 
mihi, tibi, sibi, ibi, ubij and Short in nisi, quasi, cui (when mak- 
ing two syllables), and in Greek vocatives, as Alexi. 

7. Final o is Common ; but long in datives and ablatives, also, 
almost invariably, in verbs, and in nouns of the third declension. 

Exceptions. — cito, modo, Hied, profecto, duinmodo, i7n?nc, 
ego, duo, oeto. 

8. Final u is Long ; final y is Short. 

9. Final as, es, os, are Long; final is, us, ys, are Short: as, 
nefas, rupes, servos, honos ; hostis, amicus, Tethys. 

Exceptions. — as is short in Greek plural accusatives, as 
lamp adds j and in anas. 

es is short in nouns of the third declension (lingual) having a 
short vowel in the stem (but sedes, etc.) : as, miles (itis), obses, 
(idis), — except abies, aries, paries, pesj in the present of esse (es, 
ades) ; in the preposition penes and in the plural of Greek nouns, 
as heroes, lampades. 

os is short in compos, impos ; in the Greek nominative ending 
as barbitosj also o for later u in the second declension, as servds 
(nominative). 

is in plural cases is long, as in bonis, nobis, vobis, omnis, 
(accusative plural) ; fis, sis, vis, (with quivis, etc.), velis, malls, 
nolis ; in gratis, foris (properly plurals) ; in the second person 
singular of the fourth conjugation, as, audis (where it is the stem 
vowel) ; and sometimes in the forms in -eris (perfect subjunctive), 
where it was originally long. 

us is long (by contraction) in the genitive singular and nomina- 
tive and accusative plural of the fourth declension ; and in nouns 
of the third declension having u long in the stem : as, virtus {litis), 
incus (Jldis). But pecus, udis. 

10. Of other final syllables, those ending in a consonant, except 
c, are Short : as, ad, ac, istuc, amat, amatur. 

Exceptions. — don$c, fac, ne'e, sometimes hie; en, non, quln^ 
sin ; eras, plus ; ciir, par, aer. 

Note. — - The final syllable of a Verse is doubtful (359. g). 

3. — Penultimate Syllables. 

349. A Noun is said to increase, when in any case 
it has more syllables than in the nominative singular, j 



Penultimate Syllables. 267 

A Verb is said to increase, when in any part it has 
more syllables than in the Stem, inclusive of the final 
vowel : as, amd-, tege-, capz-} 

a. The final syllable of an inflected word is called the Termina- 
tion ; that immediately preceding is called the Increment. 

b. In such words as stellarum, corporis, amatis, tegitis, the 
penultimate syllable is called the increment. In ittngribus, 
amdv2ritis, the syllables marked are called the first, second, and 
third increments of the noun or verb. 

350. In the increment of nouns and adjectives, a and 
o are generally Long ; e, i, u, y, generally wShort : as, 

aetatis, honoris, servorum ; operis, carminis, murmuris, 
peciidis, chlamydia. Exceptions are : — 

a: — baccar (arts), hepar (dtis), jubar (arts), lar (laris), mas 
{maris), nectar (arts), par (parts), sal (satis), vas (vddis), daps 
(ddpis), fax (facts), anthrax (acts). 

5 : — neuters of the third declension (except os, oris) : as 3 cor- 
pus (oris) ; also, arbor (oris), scrobs (scrdbis), ops (opis), bos (bo vis). 

e: — increments of fifth declension; also heres (edis), tex 
(legis), locuples (etis), merces (edis), plebs [plebis), quies (etis), rex 
(regis), ver (veris). 

1 : — most nouns and adjectives in ix : as, felicis, radicis (except 
filix, nix, strix); dis (ditis), glis (gliris), lis (litis), vis (vires), 
Quirltes, Samnltes. 

u: — forms from nouns in us: as, paludis, telluris, virtutisj 
• also, lux (lilcis),frux (frzlgis). 

351. In the increment of Verbs the characteristic 
1 vowels are as follows : — 

1. Of the first conjugation a : as, amare, amdtur. 

2. Of the second conjugation e : as, monere, monetur. 

3. Of the third conjugation e, 1 : as, teggre, tegitur. 

4. Of the fourth congugation 1 : as, audlre, audltur. 
Exc. — do and its compounds have a: as, dare, circumddbat. 



1 The rules of Increment are purely arbitrary, as the syllables are long or short 
1 according to the proper quantity of the Stem or of the formative terminations. The 
1 quantity of noun-stems appears in the schedule of the third declension (see 67) ; 

and that of terminations is seen under the various inflections, where it is better to 

learn them. For quantities of Greek stems, see 63 (p. 25). 



268 Prosody. 

a. In other verbal increments (not stem-vowels) — 
a is always Long : as, monearis, teganius. 

e is Long : as, tegebam, audiebar. But it is short before -ram, 
-rim, -ro ; in the future personal endings -beris, -bere ; and some- 
times in the perfect -erunt (as stetZruntque comae, Mm. ii. 774). 

i is Long in forms after the analogy of the fourth conjugation : 
as, petivi, lacessitus (in others short : as, monitus) ; also in the 
subjunctive present of esse and velle (simus, velfmus) ; and 
(rarely) in the endings -rimus, -ritis ; but short in the future forms 
amabitis, etc. 

o is found only in imperatives, and is always Long. 

u is Short in siimus, volumus, quaesumus ; in the Supine and 
its derivatives it is long : as, soluturus. 

b. Perfects and Supines of two syllables lengthen the stem- 
syllable : 1 as, juvi, jutum (juvo), vidi, visum {video) ; fugi 
(fugio). 

Exceptions. — bibi, dMi (do), fidi (findo), scidi (scindo) , stHi 
(sto), stiti (sis to), tuli {fero)j — cttum (cieo), datum (do), ttum 
(eo), litum (lino), qutttim (qued), ratwn (reor), rutwn (ruo), satum 
sero), situm (sind), stdtum (sto or sistd). In some compounds of 
sto, stdtum is found long, as firostatum. 

c. Reduplicated perfects shorten both syllables : as, cecidi 
(cddo), didici (disco), pupiigi (fiungo) ; also cucurri (curro), 
tetendi (tendo), momordi (mordeo). But cecidi from caedo, pe- 
pedi from pedo. 

352. The following terminations are preceded by a 
long vowel. 

1. -al, -ar : as vectigal, fiulvinarj and numeral endings, as 
vicesimus. 

Exceptions. — animal, capital, jubar. 

2. -brum, -crum, -trum : as, lavacrum, delilbrum, veratrum. 

3. -do, -ga, -go : as,formido, auriga, imago. 
Exceptions. — cddo, divido, 2do, modo, so lido, spddo, tr2pido; 

caliga,fiiga, toga, pidga; ago, ego, t#go, nego, re*go. 

4. -le, -les, -lis : as, ancile, miles, crudelis, hostilis. 

1 Either by contraction or vowel -increase, perhaps both. 



Penultimate Syllables. 269 

Exceptions. — male* ; indoles, silboles; gracilis, hiimilis, simi- 
lis, stZrilis; and verbal adjectives in ilis : as, dinabilis, docilis, 
fact lis, terribilis. 

5. -ma, -men, -mentum : as, poema, flumen, jumentum. 

Exceptions. — anima, lacrima, victima; td?nen, columen; 
with regimen and the like from verb-stems. 

6. -mus, -nus, -rus, -sus, -tus , -neus, -rius : as, extremus, supi- 
nus, octoni, siverus, fu?nosus, peritus, sendrius, extrdneus. 

Exceptions. — (a.) 1 before -mus: as, finitimus, maritimus, 
(except bimus, trimus quadrimus, opimus, mimus, limus) ; and 
in superlatives (except imus, primus) ; domus, hujnus, nemus, 
calamus, thalamus. 

(b.) 1 before -nus : as in crastinus, fraxinus, and the like (ex- 
cept matiitinus, vespertinus, repentinus) ; dsinus, cominus, eminus, 
dominus, f acinus, protinus, terminus, vaticinus ; manus, oceanus, 
pldtdnus ; genus ; bonus, onus, sonus. 

(c.) e before -rus : as, merus, hgdera (except procerus, since- 
rus, severus) ; also, barbdrus, chorus, nurus, pirus; satira, am- 
phora, ancora, lyra, purpura; forum, pdrum. 

(d.) Id tus, m£tus, vetus, digitus, servitiis, spiritus ; quo tus, 
to tus ; habitus, and the like. 

7. -na, -ne, -nis : as, carina, mane, indnis. 

Exceptions. — advena, do7nina, femina, machina, mina, g2na, 
pagina; b?ne, sine; cdnis, cinis, jiivenis. 

8. -re, -ris, -ta, -tis : as, altdre, salutdris, moneta, immitis. 

Exceptions. — mare, hildris, rota, nota, sitis, pdtis, and most 
nouns in -ita. 

9. -tim, -turn, and syllables beginning with v : as, privdtim, 
quercetum, oliva. 

Exceptions, —affdtim, stdtim; nivis (nix); br^vis, gravis, 
l$vis (light) ; novus, novem ; and several verb roots (as, juvo, 
fdveo), also ovis, bovis, Jovis. 

10. -dex, -lex, -mex, -rex, -dix, -nix : and the numeral endings 
-ginti, ginta : -as, judex, ilex, radix, viginti, triginta. 

Exceptions. — citlex, silex, rilmex. 

353. The following terminations are preceded by a 
short vowel : — 

1. -cus, -dus, -lus : as, rusticus, cdlidus, gladiolus. 



§78 



>78 



270 Prosody. 

Exceptions, — opticus, amicus j apricus,ficus, mendicus •, pudi- 
cus; fidus, nidus, sidus j and u before -dus : as, crudus, nudus j 
e before -lus, as phase 'lus (except gelus, see* lus); asilus ; Ulcus. 

2. -no, -nor, -ro, -ror, in verbs : as, destino, criminor, gero, 
queror. 

Exceptions. — festino, propino, saglno, opmor, incllno j 
declaro, spero, splro, oro, duro, miror. 

3. -ba, -bo, -pa, -po : as, faba, bibo, liipa, crepo. 
Exceptions. — gieba, scriba j bubo, nubo, scrlboj papa, pupa, 

rip a, scop a, stupaj capo, repo, stipo. 

4. -tas (in nouns), -ter and -tus (in adverbs): as, civitas, 
fortiter, penitus. 

5. -cuius, -cellus, -lentus, -tudo : as, fasciculus, ocellus, lucu- 
lentus, magnitudo. 

354. The following are the rules for the quantity of 
Derivatives : — 

a. Forms from the same Stem retain the original quantity : as, 
amo, amavisti; g$nus, generis. 

Exceptions. — 1. bos, lar, mas, par, pes, sal, vas — also arbos 
(not arbor) — have a long vowel in the nominative from short 
stems. 

2. Nouns in or, genitive oris, have the vowel shortened before 
the final r : as, honor. (But this shortening is comparatively late, 
so that in Plautus and some inscriptions these nominatives are 
often found long.) 

3. Many verb-forms with original long vowel shorten it before 
final r or t : as, a?net, diceret (compare a7nemus), audit, fit. (The 
final syllable in t of the perfect seems to have been orignally long, 
but to have been shortened under this rule.) 

b. Forms from the same Root often vary in quantity from 
vowel increase (see 10. a, 158. a); as, dico (cf. maledicus), duco 
(ducis), fido (perfidus), vocis (voco), legio (lego.) 

c. Compounds retain the quantity of the words which com- 
pose them: as, occido (cado), occido (caedo), iniquus (aequus). 

d. Greek words compounded with irpo have o short, as propheta, 
prologus. Some Latin compounds of pro have o short, as pro- 
ficiscor, profiteor. Compounds with ne vary : as, n#fas, n#go, 
nfyueo, nequis, nequa?n. So dejtro and pej$ro from juro. 



Rhythm. 271 



Chapter II. — Rhythm. 

Note. — The essence of the Rhythm of poetry is the regular recur- 
rence of syllables which are pronounced with more stress than those in- 
tervening. To produce this effect in its perfection, precisely equal times 
should occur between the recurrence of the stress. But, in the applica- 
tion of rhythm to words to form poetry, the exactness of the intervals 
of time is sacrificed somewhat to the necessary length of the words ; 
and, on the other hand, the words are forced somewhat in their pronun- 
ciation, to produce more nearly the proper intervals of time. These 
two adaptations take place in very different degrees ; one language disre- 
garding more the intervals of time, and another more the pronunciation 
of the words. 

The Greek language early developed a very strict rhythmical form 
of poetry, in which the intervals of time were all-important. The 
earliest Latin, on the other hand, — as in the Saturnian and Fescennine 
verse, — was not so restricted. But the pure metrical forms were after- 
wards adopted from the Greek, so that all the principal poetry with 
which we have to do follows for the most part Greek rules, which re- 
quire the formal division of words (like music) into measures of equal 
times, technically called Feet. In poetry that was sung doubtless the 
strict rhythm was more closely followed in practice than in that which 
was declaimed or intoned. In neither language, however, is the time 
perfectly preserved, even in single measures ; and there are- some cases 
in which the regularity of the true time between the ictuses is disturbed. 

The Greeks and Latins both distinguished syllables of two kinds in 
regard to the length of time required for their pronunciation, viz., longs 
and shorts, in the ratio of two to one. But it must not be supposed that 
all long syllables were of equal length, or even that in a given passage 
each long had just twice the length of the contiguous shorts. The ratio 
was only approximate at best, though necessarily more exact in singing 
than in recitation. Nor are longs and shorts the only forms of syllables 
that are found. In some cases a long syllable was protracted, so as to 
have the time of three or even of four shorts, and often a long or two 
shorts were pronounced in less than their proper time, though doubtless 
distinguishable in time from one short (see 355. c, d.). Sometimes a 
syllable naturally short seems to have been slightly prolonged, so as to 
represent a long, though in most (not all) cases the apparent irregu- 
larity can be otherwise explained. In a few cases, also, a pause takes 
the place of one or more syllables to fill out the required length of the 
measure. This could, of course, take place only at the end of a word : 
hence the importance of Caesura and Diaeresis in prosody (see 358). 



2J2 Prosody. 

Measures* 

355. Rhythm consists of the division of musical sound 
into measures or feet. The most natural division of 
musical time is into measures consisting of either two or 
three equal parts, 1 besides which, the ancients also dis- 
tinguished those of five equal parts. 2 

Remark. — The divisions of musical time are marked by a stress of 
voice on one or the other part of the measure, called the ictus (beat), or 
metrical accent (see 358). 

a. The unit of length in Prosody is one short syllable. This is 
called a Mora. It is represented by the sign w , or in musical nota- 
tion by the quaver, f . 

/ 

b. A long syllable is regularly equal to two morce, and is repre- 
sented by the sign , or by the crotchet * . 

c. A long syllable may be protracted, so as to occupy the time of 
three or four morcej this is represented by the sign i__ (<• *), l_j (<?). 

d. A long syllable may be contracted, so as to occupy only the 
time of a short one : this has been represented by the sign >. 

e. A short syllable may be contracted so as to occupy less than 
one mora, 

f. Pauses sometimes occur at the end of verses or series to fill up 
the time. A pause of one mora in a measure is indicated by the 
sign A ; one of two mora* by the sign A . 

g. One or more syllables are sometimes placed before the proper 
beginning of the measure. Such syllables are called an Anacrusis 
or prelude} It is regularly equal to the unaccented part of the 
measure. 



1 Making what is called in music " double " or " triple " time. These measures 
in Prosody are commonly called "feet," following the usage of the Greek and Latin 
grammarians. 

2 This division is not unknown to modern music, although rare. 

3 The same thing occurs in modern poetry, and in modern music any unaccented 
syllables at the beginning are treated as an anacrusis, i. e. they make an incomplete 
measure before the first bar. This was not the case in ancient music. The ancients 
seem to have treated any unaccented syllable at the beginning as belonging to the 
following accented ones, so as to make with them a foot or measure. Thus it would 
seem that the original form of Indo-European poetry was iambic in its structure, or 
at least accented the second syllable rather than the first. 



Rhythm. 



273 



356. The measures most frequently employed in Latin „ 79 
verse, together with their musical notation, are the fol- 
lowing : — 



a. Triple or Unequal Measures (f). 1 



1. Trochee (_/_ ^ 



. 



2. Iambus 



? 



as, regis. 



3. Tribrach 2 (, 



(\j f = P f) : as, duces. 







') : as, ho minis. 



b. Double or Equal Measures (f ). 

1. Dactyl (_L w = f f f) ' as, consults \ 

2. Anapaest {\j kj JL = f f f) '• as, monitos. 

3. Spondee (_£, __ = (• , # ) : as, r*g£r. 

c. Six-timed Measures (§). 
1. Ionic # majore ( w = P P f P) : as, confecerat. 



2. Ionic <z minor e i^j \j = 

3. Choriambus (_ w ^ _ : 



# # # # 



u 



) : as, retulisseni. 



P P f f): conticUrdnt. 



<£. Quinary or Hemiolic 3 Measures (§). 

1. Cretic (_ w = f P P ) : as, consules. 

I '/I 

2. P.EON primus {—\j \j \j = P f f f ) : as consulibus. 



3. PiEON quartus i^j \j \j = 



000 



): as, itineri. 



4. Bacchius 



(w = P f f): as, dmicos. 



1 Called diplasic, the two parts (Thesis and Arsis) being in the ratio of 2 
to 1. The rhythm of the Trochee and Iambus is essentially the same. A trochaic 
series with an anacrusis becomes iambic, and an iambic with the loss of its unac- 
cented part becomes trochaic. The same is true of the dactyl and anapaest, and the 
two Ionics. There is no reason to believe, however, that the accented beginning is 
original, and the opposite form produced by anacrusis. On the contrary the proba- 
bility is the other way. 

2 Not a fundamental foot, but found only as the resolution of a Trochee or Iambus. 
8 Called hemiolic, the two parts being in the ratio of 1 to ij, or of 3 to 2. 



274 Prosody. 

e. Several compound measures are mentioned by the gramma- 
rians, viz. ; Antibacchius ( \J), Proceleusmatic (www w), the 

2d and 3d Pceon, having a long syllable in the 2d and 3d place, with 
three short ones ; 1st, 2d, 3d, and 4th Epitritus, having a short syl- 
lable in the 1st, 2d, 3d, and 4th place, with three long ones. None 
of them, however, are needed, to explain rhythmically all the forms 
of ancient verse. 

Note. — Feet with these apparent quantities do not always occupy the 
same time in the measure, but are contracted or prolonged to suit the 
series in which they occur. They are then called irrational, because the 
thesis and arsis do not have integral ratios. Such are : — 
Irrational Spondee : __ > = | ^ . 

Cyclic Dactyl : — w w = | ^ ]S (or nearly \ \ jS). 



3 

Cyclic Anapaest : = the same reversed. 

Irrational Trochee : __ > 



■j-/.- 



Of feet and combinations of feet (sometimes extending to an entire verse, 
and controlled by a single leading accent), the following are recognized, 
assuming \ to be the unit of musical time : — 

3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 10, 12, 15, 16, 18, 20, 25, 

8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 88 8 8 

Narrative poetry was written for rhythmical recitation, or Chant, with 
instrumental accompaniment ; and Lyrical poetry for rhythmical melody, 
or singing. It must be borne in mind that in ancient music — which in this 
differs widely from modern — the rhythm of the melody was identical with 
the rhythm of the text. The lyric poetry was to be sung ; the poet was 
musician and composer, as well as author. To this day a poet is said con- 
ventionally to " sing." 

Thus a correct understanding of the rhythmical structure of the Verse 
gives us the exact time, though not the tune, to which it was actually sung. 
The exact time, however, as indicated by the succession of long and short 
syllables, was varied according to certain laws of so-called " Rhythmic, ' 
as will be explained below. In reading ancient verse it is necessary to 
bear in mind not only the variations in the relation of length of syllables, 
but the occasional pause necessary to fill out the measure ; and to remem- 
ber that the rhythmical accent is the only one of importance, though the 
words should be distinguished carefully, and the sense preserved. Do not 
scan, but read metrically. 

357. In many cases measures of the same time may be 
substituted for each other, a long syllable taking the place 



Rhythm, 275 

of two short ones, or two short ones the place of one long 
one. In the former case the measure is said to be con- 
tracted ; in the latter, to be resolved. Thus : — 

a. A Spondee ( ) may take the place of a dactyl (___ w w ) or 

anapaest (w ^ _) ; and a Tribrach (w \j \J) of a trochee (_ w) or 
Iambus (^ _). The optional substitution of a long for two short 
syllables is represented by the sign 00. 

b. Another form of dactyl when substituted for a trochee — a 
spondee also being admissible — is represented thus, _ ^. 

c. When a long syllable having the Ictus (358. a) is resolved, the 
ictus properly belongs to both the resulting short syllables ; but the 
accent to indicate it is placed on the former : as, 

nunc expenar | sitn* aceto | tibi cor acn? in | pectore. 

Bacch. 405. 

The Musical Accent. 

358. That part of the measure which receives the stress 
of voice (the musical accent) is called the Thesis ; the 
other part is called the Arsis. 1 

a. The stress of voice laid upon the Thesis is called the Ictus 
[beat). It is marked thus \ ]_ \j \j> 

b. The ending of a word within a measure is called Cesura. 
When this coincides with a rhetorical pause, it is called the Caesura 
of the verse, and is of main importance as affecting the melody or 
rhythm. 

c. The coincidence of the end of a word with that of a measure in 
Prosody is called Diuresis. 

1 The Thesis signifies properly, the putting down of the foot in beating time, in 
the march or dance ("downward beat"), and the Arsis the raising of the foot 
("upward beat"). By the Latin grammarians these terms were made to mean, re- 
spectively, the ending and beginning of a measure. By a misunderstanding which 
has prevailed till recently, since the time of Bentley, their true signification has been 
reversed. They will here be used in accordance with their ancient meaning, as is 
now becoming more common. This metrical accent, recurring at regular intervals 
of time, is what constitutes the essence of the rhythm of poetry as distinguished 
from prose, and should be constantly kept in mind. 

The prevailing error arose from applying to trochaic and dactylic verse a defini- 
tion which was true only of iambic or anapaestic. 



2j6 Prosody. 



Chapter III. — Versification. 

The Verse. 

359. A single line in poetry — that is, a series of meas- 
ures set in a recognized order — is called a Verse. 1 

Note. — Most of the common verses, however, originally consisted of 
two series, but the joint between them is often obscured. It is marked in 
Iambic verse by the Diceresis^ in dactylic Hexameter by the Ccesura. 

a. A verse lacking a syllable at the end is called Catalectic, 
that is, there is a pause to fill the measure ; if complete it is called 
Acatalectic, and needs no pause. 

b. To divide the verse into its appropriate measures, according to 
the rules of Quantity and Versification, is called Scanning or Scan- 
sion (i. e. a climbing or advance by steps). 

Remark. — In reading verse rhythmically care should be taken, while 
preserving the measure or time of the syllables, not to destroy or confuse 
the words themselves, as is often done in scanning. Elided syllables 
should be sounded but lightly; and if it is remembered that final m had a 
nasal and feeble sound, its partial suppression before an initial vowel 
(see d) will be easy. 

c. In scanning, a vowel or diphthong at the end of a word (unless 
an interjection) is partially suppressed when the next word begins 
with a vowel or with h. This is called Elision (bruising)? 

Remark. — Elision is sometimes called by the Greek name Synalcepha 
(smearing). Rarely a syllable is elided at the end of a verse when the 
next begins with a vowel : this is called Synapheia (binding). 

d. A final m, with the preceding vowel, is suppressed in like 
manner: 3 this is called Ecthlipsis (squeezing out) : as, 

monstrw?/? hovrendu7n, informs, ingens, cui lumen ademptum. — 
^n. iii. 658. 



1 The word Verse {versus) signifies a turning back, i. e. to recommence in like 
manner, as opposed to Prose (prorsus or proversus), which means straight ahead. 

2 The practice of Elision is followed in Italian and French poetry, and is some- 
times adopted in English, particularly in the older poets : as, 

To inveigle and invite th«? unwary sense. — Comus, 538. 
In early Latin poetry a final syllable ending in s often loses this letter even before a 
consonant (compare 13, b) : as, 

senio confectuj quiescit. — Ennius (C. M. 5). 
8 Hence a final syllable in m is said to have no quantity of its own — its vowel, 
in any case, being either elided or else made long by Position. 



Versification: Hexameter, 2 J J 

Remark. — The monosyllables do, dem, spe, spent, sim, sto, stem, qui 
' (plural) are never elided; nor is an iambic word elided in dactylic verse. 
Elision is often evaded by skilful collocation of words. 

e. Elision is sometimes omitted when a word ending in a vowel 
has a special emphasis, or is succeeded by a pause. This is called 
I Hiatus (gaping?) The final vowel is sometimes shortened. 

f. A final syllable, regularly short, is sometimes lengthened before 
a pause : 2 it is then said to be long by Diastole : as, 

nostrorum obruimur, — oriturque miserrima caedes. 

g. The last syllable of any verse may be indifferently long or short 
(syllaba anceps). 

Forms of Verse. 

360. A verse receives its name from its dominant 
or fundamental measure : as, Dactylic, Iambic, Trochaic, 
Anapcestic ; and from the number of measures (single 
or double) which it contains : as, Hexameter, Tetrameter, 
Trimeter, Dimeter. 

Remark. — Trochaic, Iambic, and Anapaestic verses are measured not 
1 by single feet, but by pairs (dipodia), so that six Iambi make a Trimeter. 

361. A Stanza or Strophe, consists of a definite number 
of verses ranged in a fixed order. It is often called from 

; ihe name of some eminent poet : as, Sapphic, Alcaic, 
Archilochian, Horatian. 

1. — Dactylic Hexameter. 

362. The Dactylic Hexameter {Heroic Verse) consists 
regularly of six dactyls. It may be represented thus : — 

Lkjkj\Lkjkj\L\\kjkj\Lkjkj\Lkjkj\J_^L 

or in musical notation as follows : — 

i r Lf i r is i r i is if is i r is i r ? 7 1 

a. For either of the feet, except the fifth, a spondee may be sub- 
stituted, and must be for the last. Rarely a spondee is found in the 
fifth place, when the verse is called spondaic. 

1 This usage is comparatively rare, most cases where it appears being caused by 
the retention of an originally long quantity. 



278 Prosody. 

b. The verse must have one principal caesura — sometimes two — 
almost always accompanied by a pause in the sense. Usually the 
principal caesura is after the thesis (less commonly in the arsis) of 
the third foot, dividing the verse into two parts in sense and rhythm. 
It may also be after the thesis (less commonly in the arsis) of the 
fourth foot. In this case there is often another in the second, thus 
dividing the line into three parts : as, 

parte fe|rox II ar|densqz/£ 6cu|lis || et | sibila [ colla. 

A£n. v. 277. 

Remark. — Often the only, indication of the principal among a number 
of caesuras is the break in the sense. A caesura occurring after the first 
syllable of a foot is called masculine. A caesura occurring after the second 
syllable of a foot (as in the fifth foot of the 3d and 4th verses in c) is called 
feminine, A caesura may also be found in any foot of the verse except the 
first. When the fourth foot ends a word, the break (properly a diaeresis) 
is sometimes improperly called bucolic cczsura, from its frequency in pastoral 
poetry. 

c. The introductory verses of the ^neid, divided according to the 
foregoing rules, will be as follows, the principal Caesura in each 
verse being marked by double lines : — 

Arma vi|rumque ca|no || Tro|jae qui | primus ab | oris 
Itali|am fa|to profu|gus || La|vinzaque | vemt 
litora, I multum ilk | et ter|ris || jac|tatus et | alto 
vi supe|rum sae|vae || memo | rem Ju|nonis 6b | Tram ; 
multa quo|qu*? et beljlo pas|sus || diim | conderet | urbem, 
infer|retque de|6s Lati|6, || genus | unde Lajtinum, 
Alba|nique pa|tres, || at|qu*? altae | moenia | Romae. 

The feminine caesura is seen in the following : — 

DTs geni|tl potu|ere : || te|nent medi|a: omnia | silvae. 

^n. vi. 131. 
Note. — The Hexameter is thus illustrated in English verse : — 
" Over the sea, past Crete, on the Syrian shore to the southward, 
Dwells in the well-tilled lowland a dark-haired ^thiop people, 
Skilful with needle and loom, and the arts of the dyer and carver, 
Skilful, but feeble of heart; for they know not the lords of Olympus, 
Lovers of men; neither broad-browed Zeus, nor Pallas Athene, 
Teacher of wisdom to heroes, bestower of might in the battle ; 
Share not the cunning of Hermes, nor list to the songs of Apollo, 
Fearing the stars of the sky, and the roll of the blue salt water." 

Kingsley's Andromeda. 



Versification. 279 

3. —Elegiac Stanza. 

363. The Elegiac Stanza is constructed by alternating 
the hexameter verse with the so-called Pentameter, 1 which 
is the same with it, only omitting the last half of the 
fourth and sixth feet : as, 

w I 00 I — II A I — \j \j \ \j \j \ A 



;..;, 



000 

1 u 



000 



f r 



[ U ii u 

a. The Pentameter verse is thus to be scanned as two half-verses, 
of which the latter always consists of two dactyls followed by a sin- 
gle syllable. 

b. The Pentameter has no regular Caesura ; but the first half- 
verse must always end with a word, which is followed by a pause to 
complete the measure. 2 

c. The following verses will illustrate the forms of the Elegiac 
Stanza : — 

cum subit I ill! I us tris|tissima | noctis i|mago 

qua mihisupre|mum | A || tempus in | urbe fu|it, 

cum repel, to noc|tem qua | tot mihi | cara re|liqui, 

labitur I ex 6cu|lis A || nunc quoque | giitta me|is. 

jam prope | lux ade|rat qua | me dis|cedere Caesar 
finibus I extre|mae a || jusserat | Ausoni|ae. 

Ovid. Trist. I 3. 

Note. — The Elegiac Stanza differs widely in character from hexameter 
verse (of which it is a mere modification) by its division into Distichs, 
each of which must have its own sense complete. It is employed in a great 
variety of compositions, — epistolary, amatory, or mournful, — and was 
especially a favorite of the poet Ovid. It has been illustrated in English 
verse, imitated from the German : — 

" In the Hex|ameter | rises the | fountain's | silvery | column ; 
In the Pen|tameter | aye || falling in | melody | back." 



1 Called pentameter by the old grammarians, who divided it, formally, into five 
feet (two dactyls or spondees, a spondee, and two anapaests), as follows : — 

II — ^yv^| wv| II |uu |uu — II 

2 The time of this pause, however, may be filled by the protraction of the pre- 
ceding syllable, thus : — 

— \y <j \ — u v I u II — ww| ^^| — A 



280 . Prosody, 

3. — Other Dactylic Verses. 

364. Rarely other dactylic verses or half-verses are used 
by the lyric poets. Thus : — 

a. The Dactylic Tetrameter alternates with the hexameter, form- 
the Alcmanian Strophe, as follows : — 

O for|tes pe|joraque | passi, 
mecum | saepe vi|n || nunc | vino | pellrte | ciiras ; 
eras In | gens ite|rabimus | aequor. 

Hor.— Od. i. 7 (so 28 ; Ep. 12). 
Note. — This is a single measure, its time being represented by ^-. 

b. The Dactylic Penthemim (five half-feet) consists of half a 
pentameter verse. It is used in combination with the Hexameter, 
forming the First Archilochian Strophe : as, 

dnTulgere m|ves || rede|unt jam | gramma | campis, 

arbori|busque co|mae; 
mutat I terra vi|ces || et | decres|centia | ripas 

flumina | praetere|unt. 

Hor. — Od. iv. 7. 

[For the Fourth Archilochian Strophe (Archilochian Heptameter, alter- 
nating with iambic trimeter catalectic), see 372. 11.] 

4, — Iambic Trimeter. 

365. The Iambic Trimeter is the ordinary verse of 
dramatic dialogue. It consists of three measures, each 
containing a double iambus {iambic dipody) : as, 

^ KJ I ^1 \J I ^ \J 

It is seen in the following: — 

jam jam efYica|cT do manus | sclentfae 
supplex et 6|ro regna per | Proserpmae, 
per et Dia|nae non moven|da numina, 
per atque lT|bros carminiim | valentium 
de|fixa cae|lo devoca|re sidera, 
Canld/a par|ce vocTbus | tandem sacris, 
citumque re|tro retro sol|ve turbmem. 

Hor. Epod. 17. 

It is represented in English by the Alexandrine : as, 
" Hyperion's march they spy, and glittering shafts of war." — Gray. 



Versification: Iambic, 281 

a. The Iambic Trimeter is often used in lyric poetry, alternating 
with the Dimeter, making the Iambic Strophe, as follows : — 

beatus il|le qui procul | n ego tils, 

ut prisca gens | mortalium, 
paterna ru|ra bubus ex|ercet suis, 

solutus 6m|ni fenore ; 
neque excita|tur classico | miles truci, 

nequ^ horret i|ratum mare ; 
forumque vi|tat, et super |ba clvmm 

potentio|rum limina. 

Hor. Epod. 2. 

b. In the Iambic Trimeter an irrational spondee or its equivalent 
(anapaest or dactyl) may be regularly substituted for the first iambus 
of either pair ; also a Tribrach (^ ^ \j) anywhere except in the 
last place. In the comic poets these substitutions may be made 
in any foot except the last : as, 

O lucis al| me rector || et | caelf decus ! 

quz alterna cur|ru spatia || flam|mifen? ambiens, 

Illustre lae|tis || e'xseris | terns caput. 

Seneca. Here. Fur. 592 - 94. 
quid quaeris ? an|nos se'xaginlta n£tus es 
aut plus ut c6n'[fici<? ; agrum in his | regidnibus. 

Terence. — Heaut 10, 11. 
homd sum: huma|nl || n/hil a me ali|enum puto. 
vel me mone|n? hoc || vel percon|tan puta. 

id. Heaut. 77, j8 

c. The Choliambic (lame Iambic) substitutes a trochee for the 
last iambus : as, 

II ^ — u_|v_u_|v_i_|_A II 
aequ^ est bea|tus ac poe|ma cum scrlbit : 
tarn gaudet in | se, tumque se ip|se miratur. 

Catull. xxii. 15, 16. 

d. The Iambic Trimeter Catalectic is represented as follows : — 

II ^ W U_w |^£L_w || 

It is used in combination with other measures (see 372, 11), and 
is shown in the following : — 

Vulcanus ar|dens urit 6f|ficinas. 

Hor. — Od. i. 4. 
or in English : — 

" On purple peaks a deeper shade descending." — Scott. 



§82 
2. c. 



2. a. 



Rem. 



282 Prosody. 

Note. — The Iambic Trimeter may be regarded, metrically, as " a sin- 
gle foot " (its time being represented by -^), consisting of three dipodies, 
and having its principal accent, probably, on the second syllable of the 
verse, though this is a matter of dispute. The spondee in this verse, being 
a substitute for an iambus, is irrational, and must be shortened to fit the 
measure of the iambus (represented by > ). 

5. — Other Iambic Verse. 

366. Some other forms of Iambic verse are used, as 
follows : — 

a. The Iambic Tetrameter Catalectic (Septenarius) consists of 
seven iambic feet, with the same substitutions as the above. It is 
used in more lively dialogue : as, 

nam idcira? arces|sor, nuptias | quod m/adpara|ri sensit. 

quibiis quidem quam faci|le potuerat | quiesci sz hie | quiesset ! 

Ter. Andria, 690, 691. 

The rhythm of the Iambic Septenarius may be represented 
according to our musical notation (see note 3, p. 272) : — 

IIw!_!_w__w[±w_w|jL^__w|i A II 



t j 1 r 5 r j 1 r f r j 1 r j r j i r # r 1 

Its movement is like the following : — 

" New principles I found would fit full well my constitution." 

Vicar of Bray. 

b. The Iambic Tetrameter Acatalectic (Octonarius) consists of 
eight full iambic feet with the same substitutions. It is also used 
in lively dialogue : as, 

hocinest huma|num facta aut In|cepta ? hocinest ofificium patris ? 
quid fllud est? pro | deum fidem, | quid est, si hoc non conitu- 
meliast? Andria, 236, 237. 

c. The Iambic Dimeter consists of either four {acatalectic) or 
three and a half {catalectic) iambic feet. The former is used (as 
above, 365. a) in combination with a longer verse, and the latter only 
in choruses: as, 

qu5nam cruen|ta Mannas, 
praeceps amo|re saevo, 
rapTtur quod im| potent! 
facinus parat | furore ? 

Sen. Medea, 850 - 853. 



Versification : Mixed Measures. 283 

6. — Trochaic Verse. 

367. The most common form of Trochaic verse is the 
Tetrameter catalectic (Septenarius), consisting of four 
dipodies lacking a syllable. It is represented metrically 
thus : — 

I ■£" v — > I I/w ^ > II ± *> _ > | ± v — A 1 

or in musical notation, 

*T Cf f I f Jf f Iff f 5 i \l f 7 I 

ad Xe advenio, spem, salutem, cdnsiliz^ ztixWium expetens. 

Ter. Andr. ii. 18. 
In English verse : — 

" Tell me not in mournful numbers life is but an empty dream." 

Longfellow. 

a. Strictly the spondee and its resolutions can be substituted only 
in the even places ; but the comic poets allow the substitution in 
every foot but the last : as, 

itidem habet petal sum ac vestitum : | tarn consimilist | atqu^ ego 
sura, pes, sta|tura, tonsus, | dculi, nasum, | vel labra, 
malae, mentum, | barba,collus ; | tdtus ! quid ver|bis opust ? 
si tergum ci|catricosum, | nihil hoc similist | similius. 

Plaut. Amphitr. 443 - 446. 

b. Some other forms of trochaic verse are found in the lyric poets, 
in combination with other feet, either as whole lines or parts of 
lines : as, 

non ebur ne|q#£ aureum \dim. catal.~\ 

mea reni|det in domo la|cunar [Iamb. trim. catalJ]. 

HoR. — Od. ii. 18. 

7, — Mixed Measures. 

Note. — Different measures are combined in the same verse in two 
different ways. Either a series of one kind was simply joined to a series 
of another kind — analogous to the changes of rhythm not uncommon in 
modern music ; or single feet of other times were combined with the pre- 
vailing measures, in which case these odd feet were adapted by a change 
in their quantity, becoming irrational (see 356, Note). When measures 
of one kind occur, enough to form a series, we may suppose a change of 
rhythm ; where they are isolated we must suppose adaptation. Of the 
indefinite number of possible combinations but few are found in Latin 
poetry. 



284 Prosody. 

368. The following Verses, composed of different 
rhythmical series, are found in Latin lyrical poetry : — 

1. Greater Archilochian (Dactylic Tetrameter; Trochaic 
Tripody) : — 

II OO I \JO I \JO I C\2 II u I \j \ > II 

solvitur I acris hi | ems gra|ta vice || veris | et Fa|voni. 

Hor. — Od. i. 4. 
It is possible that the dactyls may have been cyclic; but the 
change of measure seems more probable. 

2. Verse consisting of Dactylic Tetrameter catalectic {Dactylic 
Penthemim) ; Iambic Dimeter: — 

II w| \j \j \ II w — \j — I u — \j II 

scribere | versicu|los || amore perjculsum juvat. 

id. Ep. 11. 
8. — Logacedic Verse. 

369. Trochaic verses containing irrational measures or 
feet in regular prescribed positions are called Logacedic. 
The principal logaoedic forms are: — 

1. Logacedic Tetrapody {four feet) : Glyconic 

2. Logacedic Tripody {three feet) : Pherecratic 

3. Logacedic Dipody {two feet) : this may be considered a short 
Pherecratic. 

Note. — Irrational measures are those in which the syllables do not 
correspond strictly to the normal ratio of length (see 355), such as the 
Irrational Spondee and the Cyclic Dactyl. This mixture of various ratios 
of length gives an effect approaching that of prose : hence the name 
Logaoedic (\6yos, dotdrj). These measures originated in the Greek lyric 
poetry, and were adopted by the Romans. All the Roman lyric metres 
not belonging to the regular iambic, trochaic, dactylic, or Ionic systems, 
were constructed on the basis of the three forms given above : viz., Logaoe- 
dic systems consisting respectively of four, three, or two feet. Those of 
five feet (Pentapody) are to be regarded as composed of two of the others. 

370. Each logaoedic form contains a single dactyl, 1 
which may be either in the first, second, or third place. 
The verse may be catalectic or acatalectic : viz., 



1 Different Greek poets adopted fixed types in regard to the place of the dactyls, 
and so a large number of verses arose, each following a strict law, which were imi- 
tated by the Romans as existing metres. 



Versification: Logacedic Forms. 285 

Gly conic, Pherecratic. 

L-vw|_^ I _ kj UMII-vuUu I _ M II 

ii. _ kj |-vw|_v I _ M il _ v^ I -w w I _ M II 
iii. _w |_w |-vuUMI-i/vUWI 
Note. — The shorter Pherecratic (dipody), if catalectic, appears a simple 

Choriambus ( \j \j\ A ) ; and, in general, the effect of the logacedic 

forms is Choriambic. In fact, they were so regarded by the later Greek 
and Latin metricians, and these metres have obtained the general name of 
Choriambic. But they are not true choriambic, though they may very 
likely have been felt to be such by the composer, who imitated the forms 
without much thought of their origin. They maybe read (scanned), there- 
fore, on that principle. But it is better to read them as logacedic measures ;. 
and that course is followed here in accordance with the most approved 
opinion on the subject. 

371. The verses constructed upon the several Logaoedic 
forms or models are the following: — 

1. Glyconic {Second Gly conic, catalectic) : — 

II _ w I -v>v I - kj I - II f g I • • p 5 I P f I f • (or # 7) I 

l/l/p/ll/ll I I 

Romae | principis | urbi|um || 
In English : — 

" Forms more real than living man." — Shelley. 

Note. — In this and most of the succeeding forms the first foot is always 
irrational in Horace, consisting of an apparent spondee ( >). 

2. Aristophanic {First Pherecratic) : — 

temperat | ora | frenis. — Hor. 

Note. — It is very likely that this was made equal in time to the pre- 
ceding by protracting the last two syllables : thus, 

»-^v,|_0|i_l_| II f '« f I fP\ P 

/ y / I I / I 1 

3. Adonic {First Pherecratic, shortened) : — 

«— '--'r^ir.fi 

Terruit | urbem. — Hor. 
Or perhaps : — 

p7 



r\ 



- A, ffpinr.i 



286 Prosody. 

4. Pherecratic {Second Pherecratic) : — 
H-SI-^l^UAIIfJI J.J.|..|p7| 

eras donaberis haedo. — Hor. 

5. Lesser Asclepiadic {Second and First Pherecratic, both 
catalectic) : — 

II _ > I -KJ KJ I L_ II -KJ KJ I _ W I ±L A II 

Maecenas atavis edite regibus. — iifor. 

6. Greater Asclepiadic (the same, interposing a Logacedic 
Dipody) : — 

II -_ > I -^ w I L_ II -^ w I L_ II -w w I - W I _ A II 

tu ne quaesiens — scire nefas — quern mihi qu^m tibi. — Hor. 

7. Lesser Sapphic (Logacedic Pentapody, with dactyl in the 
third place) : — 

II_^|_>|-^w|_w|l_|wAII 
integer vitae scelerisque purus. — Hor. 
Or in English : — 
" Brilliant hopes, all woven in gorgeous tissues." — Longfellow. 

8. Greater Sapphic {Third Gly conic j First Pherecratic): — 

II _ w I _ > I -W V I l_ II -V yj I _ yj I l_ I w A II 

t6 deos ord Sybarin || cur properas amando. — Hor. 

9. Lesser Alcaic (Logacedic Tetrapody, two dactyls, two tro- 
chees) : — 






virginibus puerisque canto. — Hor. 
In English (nearly) : — 
"Blossom by blossom the Spring begins." — Atalanta in Calydon. 

10. Greater Alcaic (Logacedic Pentapody, catalectic, with Ana- 
crusis, and dactyl in the third place, — compare Lesser Sapphic) \ — 

II v? : _ w I — >|-ww|_w|^AII 

]ws>ium et tenacem propositi virum. — Hor. 

Or, in English : — 

" Of calling shapes, and beckoning shadows dire." — Comus, 207. 

Note. — Only the above Logaoedic forms are employed by Horace. 

11. PHALiECiAN {Logacedic Pentapody, with dactyl in the second 

place) : — 

l|w>|-ww|_^|_w|t_|_AII 



Metres of Horace. 287 

quaenam te* mala mens, miselli Ra&idi, 

agit praecipite//z in meos iambds ? — CatulL xl. 

In English : — 

" Gorgeous flowerets in the sunlight shining." — Longfellow. 
'2. Glyconic Pherecratic (Metrum Satyricurn) : — 

II _ yj I -v, w I _ W I L_ II - KJ I ~KJ KJ I L- I _ A . I 

O Coldnia quae cupis || pdnte ludere longo. — CatulL xvii. 
Metres of Horace, 

372. The Odes of Horace include nineteen varieties 
of stanza : viz., 

1. Alcaic, consisting of two Greater Alcaics (10), one Tro- 
chaic Dimeter with anacrusis, and one Lesser Alcaic (9) x : as, 

yisKum et tenacem propositi virum 
non civium ardor prava jubentium 
non vultus instantis tyranni 

mente quatit solida neq^^ Auster. — Od. iii. 3. 

Note. — The Alcaic Strophe was a special favorite with Horace, of 

whose Odes thirty-seven are in this form. 2 It is sometimes called the 

Horatian Stanza. The verses were formerly described as, 1, 2, spondee, 

I bacchius, two dactyls ; 3. spondee, bacchius, two trochees ; 4. two 

dactyls, two trochees. 

2. Sapphic (minor), consisting of three Lesser Sapphics (7) 
and one Adonic (3) : as, 

jam satis terns nivis atque dirae 
grandinis misit pater et rubente 
dextera sacras jaculatus arces 
terruit urbem. — Od. i. 2. 

Note. — The Sapphic Stanza is named after the poetess Sappho of 

Lesbos, and was a great favorite with the ancients, being used by 

Horace in twenty-five Odes — more frequently than any other except 

I the foregoing. The Lesser Sapphic verse was formerly described as 

! consisting of a Choriambus preceded by a trochaic dipody and followed 

by a bacchius. 



1 The figures refer to the foregoing list (371). 

2 See the List below (pp. 289-291 ). 



288 Prosody. 

3. Sapphic {major), consisting of one Aristophanic (2) and 
one Greater Sapphic (8) : as, 

Lydia die, per dmnes 
te deos ord, Sybarin cur properds amando. — Od. i. 8. 

4. Asclepiadean I. (minor), consisting of Lesser Asclepiad- 
ics (5) : as, 

dxegi monumdnta^z aere perennius 

rdgalique situ — pyramids* dltius. — Od. iii. 20. 

5. Asclepiadean II., consisting of one Glyconic (1) and one 
Lesser Asclepiadic (5) : as, 

Navis quae tibi crdditiim 
ddbes Virgilium, — finibus Atticis 

rdddas incolumem, precdr, 
^t serves animad — dimidium mead. — Od. i. 3. 

6. Asclepiadean III., consisting of three Lesser Asclepia- 
dics (5) and one Glyconic (1) : as, 

Quis desiderid sit pudor aut modus 
tarn can capitis ? — pradcipe lugubres 
cantus, Mdlpomend, — cui liquidam patdr 
vdeem cum cythara dedft. — Od. i. 24. 

7. Asclepiadean IV., consisting of two Lesser Asclepiadics 
(5), one Pherecratic (4), and one Glyconic (1) : as, 

O fons Bandusiad spldndididr vitrd, 
dulci digne merd, ndn sine fldribus, 

eras donaberis haddo 

cui frons turgida cdrnibus. — Od. iii. 13. 

8. Asclepiadean V. (major), consisting of Greater Asclepia- 
dics (6) : as, 

tu ne quadsierfs — scire nefas ! — quern mihi, quern tibi 
finem di dederint — Leuconod — ndc Babyldnids 
tdntaris numerds. — Od. i. 11. 

9. Alcmanian, consisting of Dactylic Hexameter (362) alter- 
nating with Tetrameter (364. a). 

10. Archilochian I., consisting of Dactylic Hexameter alter- 
nating with Trimeter Catalectic (Dactylic Pentheinim, see 364. b). 



Metres of Horace. 289 

11. Archilochian IV., consisting of a Greater Archilochian 
(Jieptameter, 368. 1), followed by Iambic Trimeter catalectic (365. 
d). The stanza consists of two pairs of verses : as, 

solvitur acris hiems grata vice || Veris et Favoni, 

trahuntque siccas machinae carinas ; 
£c neque jam stabulfs gaudet pecus, || aut arator igni, 

nee prata canis albicant pruinis. — Od. i. 4. 

12. Iambic Trimeter alone (see 365). 

13. Iambic Strophe (see 365. a). 

14. Dactylic Hexameter alternating with Iambic Dimeter : as, 

nox erat, et caeld fulgebat luna sereno 

inter minora sidera, 
cum tu, magnorum numen laesura dedrum, 

in veVba jurabas mea. — Eftod. 15. 

15. Dactylic Hexameter with Iambic Trimeter (365) ; as, 

altera jam teritur bellis civilibus aetas, 

suis et ipsa Roma viribus ruit. — Eftod. 16. 

16. Verse of Four Lesser Ionics : as, 

miserar^^ est I neqz/£ am5ri j dare liidum ! neque dulci 
mala vino I laven? aut exjaniman I metuentes. — Od. iii. 12. 

17. Iamb. trim. (365); Dact. penthem. (364. &); Iamb. dim. : as, 

Pecti nihil me sicut antea juvat 
scribere versiculos — amore perculsum gravi. — Eftod. 11. 

18. Dactylic Hexameter ; Iambic Dimeter ; Dactylic Penthe- 
mim (364. b) : as, 

horrida tempestas caelum contraxit, et imbres 
nivesque deducunt Jovem : nunc mare, nunc siliiae. . . . 

Eftod. 13. 

19. Trochaic Dimeter, Iambic Trimeter, each catalectic (see 
367. b). 

INDEX TO THE METRES OF HORACE. 

Lib. I. 

1. Maecenas atavis : 4. 9. Vides ut alta : 1. 

2. Jam satis terris : 2. 10. Mercuri facunde nepos : 2. 

3. Sic te diva: 5. it. Tu ne quaesieris : 8. 

4. Solvitur acris hiems : it. 12. Quem virum : 2. 

5. Quis multa : 7. 13. Cum tu Lydia : 5. 

6. Scriberis Vario : 6. 14. O navis : 7. 

7. Laudabunt alii : 9. 15. Pastor cum traheret : 6. 

8. Lydia die 13. 16. O matre pulcra: 1. 

19 



§82 
8. i 



290 



Prosody. 



§82 



17. 

18. 
19. 
20. 
21. 
22. 

23- 
24. 

2 5- 
26. 
27. 

1. 

2. 
3- 
4- 
5- 
6. 

7- 
8. 

9- 
10. 



Velox amoenum : 1. 
Nullam Vare : 8. 
Mater saeva : 5. 
Vile potabis : 2. 
Dianam tenerae : 7. 
Integer vitae : 2. 
Vitas hinnuleo : 7. 
Quis desiderio : 6. 
Parcius junctas : 2. 
Musis amicus : 1. 
Natis in usum : 1. 

Motum ex Metello : 1. 
Nullus argento : 2. 
Aequam memento : 1. 
Ne sit ancillae : 2. 
Nondum subacta : 1. 
Septimi Gades : 2. 
O saepe mecum: 1. 
Ulla si juris : 2. 
Non semper imbres : 1. 
Rectius vives : 2. 

Odi profanum : 1. 
Angustam amice : 1. 
Justum et tenacem : 1. 
Descende caelo : 1. 
Caelo tonantem : 1. 
Delicta majorum : 1. 
Quid fles : 7. 
Martiis caelebs : 2. 
Donee gratus : 5. 
Extremum Tanain : 6. 
Mercuri nam te : 2. 
Miserarum est : 16. 
O fons Bandusiae : 7. 
Herculis ritu : 2. 
Uxor pauperis : 5. 



28. Te maris : 9. 

29. Icci beatis: 1. 

30. O Venus : 2. 

31. Quid dedicatum : 1. 

32. Poscimur : 2. 

33. Albi ne doleas : 6. 

34. Parcus deorum : 1. 

35. O diva : 1. 

36. Et thure : 5. 

37. Nunc est bibendum : 

38. Persicos odi : 2. 



Lib. II. 



Lib. III. 



11. Quid bellicosus : 1. 

12. Nolis longa : 6. 

13. Ille et nefasto : i. 

14. Eheu fugaces : 1. 

15. Jam pauca: 1. 

16. Otium divos : 1. 

17. Cur me querelis : 1. 

18. Non ebur: 19. 

19. Bacchum in remotis : 1 

20. Non usitata : 1. 

16. Inclusam Danaen : 6. 

17. Aeli vetusto : 1. 

18. Faune nympharum : 2. 

19. Quantum distet : 5. 

20. Non vides : 2. 

21. O nata mecum : 1. 

22. Montium custos : 2. 

23. Caelo supinas : 1. 

24. Intactis opulentior : 5. 

25. Quo me Bacche : 5. 

26. Vixi pueilis : 1. 

27. Impios parrae : 2. 

28. Festo quid : 5. 

29. Tyrrhena regum : 1. 

30. Exegi monumentum : < 



Lib. IV. 



Intermissa Venus : 5. 
Pindarum quisquis : 2. 
Quern tu Melpomene : 5. 
Qualem ministrum : I, 
Divis orte bonus : 6, 
Dive quern proles : 2. 
DifTugerere nives : 10. 
Donarem pateras : 4. 



9. Ne forte credas : 1. 

10. O crudelis adhuc : 8. 

11. Est mihi nonum : 2. 

12. Jam veris comites : 6. 

13. Audivere Lyce : 7. 

14. Qua cura patrum : 1. 

15. Phoebus volentem : 1. 
Carmen Saeculare : 2. 



Metres of Hoi'ace. 291 



Epodes. 



I. 


Ibis liburnis : 13. 


10. 


Mala soluta : 13. 


2. 


Beatus ille : 13. 


11. 


Pecti nihil : 17. 


3- 


Parentis olim : 13. 


12. 


Quid tibi vis : 9. 


4- 


Lupis et agnis : 1-3. 


13- 


Horrida tempestas : 18. 


5- 


At O deorum : 13. 


14. 


Mollis inertia : 14. 


6. 


Quid immerentes : 13. 


15- 


Nox erat : 14. 


7- 


Quo quo scelesti : 13. 


16. 


Altera jam : 15. 


8. 


Rogare longo : 13. 


17. 


Jam jam efficaci : 12. 


9- 


Quando rep stum : 13. 







373. Other lyric poets use other combinations of the 
above-mentioned verses. 

a. Glyconics with one Pherecratic (both imperfect) : as, 

Diafnae sumus | in fide 
puellk^ et piierz | integri : 
Dia'nam, puerz I integri 

puelllaeque calnalmus. — Catull. 34. 

b. Sapphics, in series of single lines, closing with %xl Adonic : 
as, 

An matgis dilri tremu|ere I Manes 
Herculte;^ t et vilsum canis I Tnfelrorum 
fugit I abrupitis trepildiis ca Item's? 
falliimur: laelte venit I ecce | vultu, 
quern tii Hit Poe las ; hiimelrlsque I tela 
gestat I et noltas popullis phairetras 

Herculis ! heres. — Sen. Here. (Et. 1600-6. 

c. Sapphics followed by Glyconics, of indefinite number (id. 
Here. Fur. 830-874, 875-894). 

Miscellaneous. 

374. Other measures occur in various styles of poetry : 
viz : — 

a. Anapaestic verses of various lengths are found in dramatic 
poetry. The spondee, dactyl, or proceleusmatic may be substituted 
for the anapaest : as, 

hie homost I omnlz^ homilnum praelcipuos 

voluptaitibiis gaujdzlsqu^ anltepotens. 

ita comlmoda quae Icupfo eveniunt. 

quod ago I subit, adlsecue I sequitur : 

Ita gau I d/um sup | peditat. — Plaut. Trin. 1 1 1 5-19. 



|82 



8k 



292 Prosody. 

b. Bacchiac verses (five-timed) occur in dramatic poets, — very 
rarely in Terence, more commonly in Plautus — either in verses of 
two feet (Dimeter) or of four (Tetrameter). They are treated 
very freely, as are all measures in early Latin. The long syllables 
may be resolved, or the molossus (three longs) substituted : as, 

miiltas res | sfmlta In | meo corlde vorso, 
multum In colgitando I dolbrem Inldiplscor 
eg5met me | cog<? et malcen? et delfatlgo ; 
maglster I mihz exerlcitor ani|mus nunc est. 

Plaut. Trin. 223-226. 

c. Cretic measures occur in the same manner as the Bacchiac, 
with the same substitutions. The last foot is usually incomplete : as, 

amor amllcus mihi | ne fuas | unquam. 

his ego I de artibus | gratiam | facio. 

nil ego Is[tos moror I faeceos I mores. — id. 267, 293, 297. 

d. Saturnian Verse. — In early Latin is found a rude form 
of verse, not like the others borrowed from the Greek. The 
rhythm is Iambic tetrameter (or Trochaic with Anacrusis), from 
the Greek ; but the Arsis is often syncopated, especially in the 
middle and end of the verses : as, 

da i bunt ma Hum Me I tell If — 1| Nae'vild pole'tae. 

Early Prosody. 

375. The prosody of the earlier Latin poets differs in 
several respects from that of the later. 1 

a. At the end of words s was only feebly sounded, so that it 
does not make position with a following consonant, and is sometimes 
cut off before a vowel. This usage continued in all poets till Cic- 
ero's time. 

b. The last syllable of any word of two syllables may be made 
short, if the first is short. (This effect remained in a few words 
like ftuta, cave, vale, vide.) Thus — 

abest {Cist. ii. 1, 12); apud test {Trin. 196); soror dlctast 
{Enn. 157) ; bonas {Stick. 99) ; domi deaeque {Pseud. 37) ; 
domT {Mil. 194). 



1 Before the language was used in literature, it had become very much changed 
by the loss of final consonants and shortening of final syllables under the influence 
of accent ; which was originally free in its position, but in Latin became limited to 
the penult and antepenult. This tendency was arrested by the study of grammar 
and by literature, but shows itself again in the Romance languages. In many 
cases this change was still in progress in the time of the early poets. 



Early Prosody. 293 

c. The same effect is produced when a short monosyllable pre- 
cedes a long syllable : as, 

Hd est profecto (Merc. 372) ; erit et tibz* exoptatum (Mil. ion) ; 
si quidem hercle (Asin. 414) ; quid est si hoc (Andria, 237). 

d. In a few isolated words position is often disregarded. Such 
are tile, iste, inde, unde, nempe, esse (?). (Scholars are not yet 
agreed upon the principle in this irregularity, or its extent.) 
Thus : — ecquis his in aedibust (Bacch. 581.) 

e. In some cases the accent seems to shorten a syllable preced- 
ing it in a word of more than three syllables : as, in senectuti, 
Syrdcusae. 

f. At the beginning of a verse, many syllables long by position 
stand for short ones : as, 

ldne tu (Pseud. 442) ; estne consimilis (Efiid. v. I. 18). 

g. The original long quantity of many final syllables is retained. 
Thus : — 

1. Final a of the first declension is often long : as, 

ne epistula quidem ulla sit in aedibus (A sin. 762). 

2. Final a of the neuter plural is sometimes long (though there 
seems no etymological reason for it) : as, 

nunc et amico | prdsperabtf et | genio meo mul | ta bona faciam 
(Pers. 263). 

3. The ending -or is retained long in nouns with long stem 
(either with original r or original s) : as, 

mddo quom dicta in me ingerebas odium non uxor eram (As. 927.) 
ita mi in pecton? atque corde, facit amor incendium (Merc. 500). 
atque quanto nox fuisti longior hoc prdxuma (Amph. 548). 

4. The termination es (itis) is sometimes retained long : as in 
miles, superstes. 

5. All verb-endings in r, s, and t, may be retained long, where 
the vowel is elsewhere long in inflection : as, 

regredior audisse me (Capt. 1023) ; atqu^ ut qui fueris et qui nunc 
(id. 248) ; me nominat haec [Epid. iv. i, 8) ; faciat ut semper {Poen. 
ii. 42); infuscabat, amabo (Cretics, Cist. i. 21); qui amet (Merc. 
1021) ; ut fit in bello capitur alter filius (Capt. 25) ; tibi sit ad me 
revisas (True. ii. 4, 79). 

h. The hiatus is allowed very freely, especially at a pause in the 
sense, or when there is a change of the speaker. (The extent of 
this license is still a question among scholars ; but in the present 
state of texts it must sometimes be allowed.) 



MISCELLANEOUS. 



1. — Reckoning of Time. 

Note. — The Year was dated, in earlier times, by the names of the 
Consuls ; but was afterwards reckoned from the building of the City 
(ab urbe conditd, anno urbis conditce), the date of which was assigned by 
Varro to a period corresponding with B.C. 753. In order, therefore, to 
reduce Roman dates to those of the Christian era, the year of the city is 
to be subtracted from 754 : e.g. A.u.c. 691 (the year of Cicero's consulship) 

= B.C. 63. 

Before Caesar's reform of the Calendar (b.c. 46), the Roman year 
consisted of 355 days; March, May, Quintilis (July), and October 
having each 31 days ; February having 28, and each of the remainder 
29; with an Intercalary month, on alternate years, inserted after Feb- 
ruary 23, at the discretion of the Pontifices. The "Julian year," by 
the reformed calendar, had 365 days, divided as at present. Every 
fourth year the 24th of February (vi. kal. Mart.) was counted twice, 
giving 29 days to that month : hence the year was called Bissextilis. 
The month Quintilis received the name Julius (July), in honor of Julius 
Caesar ; and Sextilis of Augustus (August), in honor of his successor. 
The Julian year (see below) remained unchanged till the adoption of the 
Gregorian Calendar (a.d. 1582), which omits leap-year once in every 
century. 

376. Dates, according to the Roman Calendar, are 
reckoned as follows : — 

a. The first day of the month was called Kalendae (Calends), 
from calare, to call, — that being the day on which the pontiffs 
publicly announced the New Moon in the Comitia Calata, which 
which they did, originally, from actual observation. 

b. Sixteen days before the Calends, — that is, on the fifteen th 
day of March, May, July, and October, but the thirteenth of the 
other months, — were the Idus {Ides), the day of Full Moon. 

c. Eight days (the ninth by the Roman reckoning) before the 
Ides — that is, on the seventh day of March, May, July, and 
October, but the fifth of the other months — were the Nonae 
(Nones or ninths). 



Reckoning of Time. 



295 



d. From the three points thus determined the days of the month 
were reckoned backwards (the point of departure being, by Roman 
custom, counted in the reckoning), giving the following rule for 
determining the date : — 

If the given date be Calends, add two to the number of days in 
the month preceding, — if Nones or Ides, add one to that of the 
day on which they fall, — and from the number thus ascertained 
subtract the given date : — thus, 

viii. Kal. Feb. (33 — 8)= Jan. 25. 

iv. Non. Mar. (8—4) = Mar. 4. 

iv. Id. Sept. (14 — 4) = Sept. 10. 

e. The days of the Roman month by the Julian Calendar, as 
thus ascertained, are given in the following Table : — 



January. 


February 




March. 


April. 


1. Kal. Jan. 


Kal. Feb. 




Kal 


Martle 


Kal 


Apriles 


2. iv. Non. Jan. 


iv. Non. Feb. 


vi. Non. 


Mart. 


iv. Non. Apr. 


3- ni. „ „ 


in. „ 


„ 


v. 


„ 


11 


in. 


11 11 


4. prid. „ „ 


prid. „ 


>> 


IV. 


„ 


„ 


prid. 


11 11 


5. Non. Jan. 


Non. Feb 




in. 


„ 


11 


Non 


Apriles 


6. viii. Id. Jan. 


viii. Id. Feb. 


prid. 


11 


11 


VIII. 


Id. Apr. 


7. VII. ,, ,, 


VII. ,, 




Non 


Marti^e 


VII. 


11 11 


8. vi. ,, „ 


VI. „ 


,, 


viii. 


Id. 


Mart. 


VI. 


11 11 


9- v. „ „ 


v. ,, 


u 


VII. 


55 


11 


V. 


11 11 


10. IV. „ ,, 


IV. ,, 


jj 


VI. 


„ 


11 


IV. 


11 11 


11. in. „ „ 


III. „ 


11 


V. 


„ 


11 


III. 


11 11 


12. prid. ,, ,, 


prid. „ 




IV. 


„ 


„ 


prid. 


11 11 


13. Idus Jan. 


Idus Feb. 




III. 


„ 


11 


Idus Apriles. 


14. xix. Kal. Feb. 


xvi. Kal. Martias 


prid. 


11 


11 


XVIII. 


Kal. Maias 


15. xvrn. ,, ,, 


XV. „ 


11 


Idus 


Martle 


XVII. 


11 11 


16. XVII. ,, ,, 


XIV. ,, 


11 


XVII 


Kal 


Aprilis. 


XVI. 


11 11 


17. XVI. „ „ 


XIII. ,, 


11 


XVI. 


n 


11 


XV. 


11 11 


18. XV. „ „ 


XII. „ 


11 


XV. 


)5 


11 


XIV. 


11 11 


19. XIV. „ ,, 


XI. „ 


11 


XIV. 


11 


11 


XIII. 


11 11 


20- XIII. ,, ,, 


X. 


11 


xin. 


11 


„ 


XII. 


11 11 


21. XIT. ,, „ 


IX. 


11 


XII. 


11 


11 


XI. 


11 11 


22. XI. ,, ,, 


VIII. „ 


„ 


XI. 


11 


„ 


X. 


11 11 


2 3- x. „ ,, 


VII. ,, 


5) 


X. 


11 


11 


IX. 


>> 11 


24. IX. ,, ,, 


VI. ,, 


11 


IX- 


11 


11 


VIII. 


11 11 


25. VIII. ,, ,, 


v. ,, 


v, 


VIII. 


11 


11 


VII. 


11 11 


26. VII. „ ,, 


IV. „ 


11 


VII. 


11 


M 


VI. 


11 11 


27. VI. ,, ,, 


III. „ 


11 


VI. 


11 


11 


V. 


11 11 


23. V. „ ,, 


prid. ,, 


„ 


V. 


11 


„ 


IV. 


11 11 


29. IV. „ „ 


[prid. Kal. 


Mart. 


IV. 


„ 


,. 


III. 


11 11 


30. III. ,, ,, 


in leap-year, the 


III. 


11 


11 


prid. 


11 11 


31. prid.,, „ 


vi. Kal. (24th) being 


prid. 


„ 


11 


So June, Sept., Nov. 


(So Aug., Dec.) 


counted twice.] 


(So May, July, Oct.) 







Note. — Observe that a date before the Julian Reform (b.c. 46) is to 
be found not by the above, but by taking the earlier reckoning of the 
number of days in the month. 



296 Miscellaneous. 

2. Measures of Value. 

377. The Money of the Romans was in early times wholly of 
copper, the unit being the As. This was nominally a pound, but 
actually somewhat less, in weight, and was divided into twelve 
unciae. In the third century B.C. the As was reduced by degrees 
to one-twelfth of its original value. At the same time silver coins 
were introduced ; the Denarius = 10 Asses, and the Sestertius or 
sesterce (semis- tertius, or half -third, represented by IIS or HS = 
duo et semis') = 2.y 2 Asses. 

378. The Sestertius, being probably introduced at a time when 
it was equal in value to the original as, came to be used as the unit 
of value : hence nummus, coin, was used as equivalent to Sester- 
tius. Afterwards, by reductions in the standard, four asses 
became equal to a sesterce. Gold was introduced later, the aureus 
being equal to 100 sesterces. The value of these coins is seen in 
the following Table : — 

2)4 asses = 1 sestertius or nummus (hs), value nearly 5 cents. 
10 asses or 4 sestertii = 1 denarius . . . „ „ 20 „ 

1000 sestertii = 1 sestertium „ ,, $50.00. 

379. The Sestertium (probably the genitive plural of sestertius) 
was a sum of money, not a coin ; the word is inflected regularly 
as a neuter noun: thus, tria sestertia = $1 $0.00. When com- 
bined with a numeral adverb, hundreds of thousands (centena 
millid) are to be understood : thus decies sestertium {decies hs) = 
$50,000. In the statement of large sums the noun is often 
omitted : thus sexagies (Rose. Am. 2) signifies, sexagies [centena 
millia ] sestertium (6,000,000 sesterces) =$300,000 (nearly). 

380. In the statement of sums of money in cipher, a line above 
the number indicates thousands ; lines at the sides also, hundred- 
thousands. Thus hs. DC. = 600 sestertii; hs. dc. = 600,000 ses- 
tertii, or 600 sestertiaj H.s. |dc| = 60,000,000 sestertii. 

381. The Roman Measures of Length are the following : — 

12 unciae [inches ) = 1 Roman Foot (pes : 11.65 English inches). 
1% Feet = 1 Cubit. — 2% Feet = 1 Degree or Step (gradus). 

5 Feet = 1 Pace (passus). — 1000 Paces (mille passuum) = 1 Mile. 

The Roman mile was equal to 4850 English feet. The Jugerum, 
or unit of measure of land, was an area of 240 (Roman) feet long 
and 120 broad ; a little less than ^ of an English acre. 



Miscellaneous. 



297 



332. The Measures of Weight are — 

12 uncias {ounces) = one pound (libra, about }£ lb. avoirdupois). 

Fractional parts (weight or coin) are — 

1. (-^),uncia; 5. (t^j), quincunx ; 9. (f) , dodrans ; 

2 . ( \ ) , sextans ; 6. ( £ ) , semis sis ; I o. ( f ) , dextans ; 

3. (\), quadrans ; 7. (yV), septunx ; II. (\^) t deunx; 

4. (£), /Sr&yw; 8. (f),A?JJ2k; 12. As. 1 

The Talent was a Greek weight = 60 /S#ra. 

383. The Measures of Capacity are — 

12 cyathi = 1 sextarius (nearly a pint). 
16 sextarii = 1 modius (peck). 

6 sextarii = 1 congius (3 quarts, liquid measure). 

8 congii = 1 amphora (6 gallons). 

ABBREVIATIONS. 



A., absolvo, antiquo. 

A. U., anno urbis. 

A. U. C, ab urbe conditd. 

C, condemno, comitialis. 
cos., consul (consule). 
coss., consules (consulibus). 
D., divus. 

D. D., <2fo;z0 <&£#/. 

D. D. D., daty dicat, dedicat. 

des., designatus. 

D. M., <//V manes. 

eq. Rom., i^»f.F Romanics, 

F., filius, fastus. 

ictus, jurisconsultits. 

Id., z't/ztf. 

imp., imperator. 

J. O. M., y<?z/* optimo maximo. 

K., Kal., Kalendce. 

N., nepos, ne fastus, 

N. L., «<?^ liquet. 



P. C.fpatres conscripti. 

pi., plebis. 

pont. m.?iK. , pontif ex maximus. 

pop., populus. 

P. R., populus Romanus. 

pr., prcetor. 

proa, proconsul. 

Q. B. F. F. Q. s., ^»^ bonum felix 
faustumque sit. 

Quir., Quirites. 

resp., respublica, respondet. 

S-, salutem, sacrum, senatus. 

S. C, senatus consultum. 

S. D. P., salutem dicit plurimam. 

S. P. Q. R., Senatus Populusque Ro- 
manus. 

S. V. B. E. E. V., J7 £'tf/<?.f &7Z£ *tf, ^0 

pi. tr., tribunus plebis. 
U. (u. R.), utirogas. 



1 Originally a pound of copper ; afterwards worth about two cents. 



§85 

6. 



GLOSSARY 

OF TERMS USED IN GRAMMAR, RHETORIC, AND PROSODY. 



I. Grammatical Figures. 

Anacohcthon : a change of construction in the same sentence, 

leaving the first part broken or unfinished. 
Anastrophe : inversion of the usual order of words. 
Apodosis : the conclusion of a conditional sentence (see Protasis), 
Archaism : an adoption of old or obsolete forms. 
Asyndeton : omission of conjunctions (208. b). 
Barbaris?n : adoption of foreign or unauthorized forms. 
Brachylogy : brevity of expression. 
Crasis : contraction of two vowels into one (10. c). 
Ellipsis : omission of a word or words necessary to complete the 

sense (177. n.). 
Enallage : substitution of one word or form for another. 
Epenthesis : insertion of a letter or syllable (11. c). 
Hellenism : use of Greek forms or constructions. 
Hendiadys : the use of two nouns, with conjunction, instead of a 

single modified noun. 
Hypallage : interchange of constructions. 
Hysteron proteron : reversing the natural order. 
Metathesis : transposition of letters in a word (11. d). 
Paragoge : adding a letter or letters to the end of a word. 
Parenthesis : insertion of a phrase interrupting the construction. 
Periphrasis ; a roundabout way of expression. 
Pleonas?n ; the use of needless words. 
Prolepsis : the use of a word by anticipation, referring to one or 

more words afterwards expressed. 
Protasis : a clause introduced by a conditional expression (if, when, 

whoever), leading to a conclusion called the Apodosis (304). 
Syncope : omission of a letter or syllable from the middle of a 

word (11. b). 
Synesis : agreement of words according to the sense, and not the 

grammatical form (182). 
Tmesis : the separation of the two parts of a compound word by 

other words {cutting). 
Zeugma : the use of a verb with two different words, to only one 

of which it strictly applies (yoking). 



Glossary. 299 

II. Rhetorical Figures. 

Allegory : a narrative in which names and things are used as meta- 
phors to enforce some moral truth, and not in their natural 
sense. 

Alliteration : using several words that begin with the same letter. 

Analogy : argument from resemblances. 

Anaphora: repeating a word at the beginning of successive 
clauses (344./). 

Antithesis : opposition, or contrast of parts (for emphasis : 344). 

Antonomasia : use of a proper for a common noun, or the reverse. 

Aposiopesis : an abrupt pause for rhetorical effect. 

Catachresis : a harsh metaphor (misuse of words). 

Chiasmus : reversing the order of words in corresponding pairs or 
phrases (344./). 

Climax: a gradual increase of emphasis, or enlargement of 
meaning. 

Euphe?nis7n : the mild expression of a painful or repulsive idea. 

Euphony : the choice of words for their agreeable sound. 

Hyperbaton : violation of the usual order of words. 

Hyperbole : exaggeration for rhetorical effect. 

Irony : the use of words which naturally convey a sense contrary 
to what is meant. 

Litotes : the affirming of a thing by denying its contrary (209. c). 

Metaphor: the figurative use of words, indicating an object by 
some resemblance {transfer). 

Metonymy : using the name of one thing to indicate some kindred 
thing. 

Parono7nasia : using words of like sound. 

Synecdoche : using the name of a part for the whole, or the 

reverse. 
Synonymes : two or more words of the same or similar meaning. 



III. Terms of Prosody. 

Acatalectic : complete, as a series or sequence of feet (359. a). 
Anaclasis : breaking up of rhythm by substituting different 

measures. 
Anacrusis : changing the character of the rhythm by setting off an 

unaccented syllable or syllables (355. g). 
Antistrophe : z. series of verses corresponding to one which has 

gone before {strophe). 
Arsis : the unaccented part of a foot (358). 
Basis : a single foot preceding the regular movement of a verse. 



300 Glossary. 

Ccesura : the ending of a word within a measure (358. b). 
Catalexis : loss of a final syllable (or syllables) making the series 

catalectic (incomplete, 359. a). 
Contraction : using one long syllable for two short (357). 
Correption : shortening of a long syllable, for symmetry. 
Diceresis : the coincidence of the end of a foot with that of a word 

(358. c). 
Dialysis : the use of j and v as vowels {silua = silva : 347. d, r). 
Diastole: making a short syllable long by emphasizing it (359./). 
Dipody, Dimeter : consisting of two like feet, or measures. 
Distich : a system or series of two verses. 
Elision : the combining of a final with a following initial vowel 

(359- r). 
Heptameter : consisting of seven feet. 

Hexapody, Hexameter : consisting of six feet, or measures. 
Hiatus : the meeting of two vowels without contraction or elision 

(359- e). 
Ictus : the metrical accent (358. a). 

Irrational: not conforming strictly to the unit of time (356, Note). 
Logacedic : varying in rhythm, making the effect resemble prose 

J369). 

Monometer : consisting of a single measure. 

Mora: the unit of time = one short syllable (355. a). 
Pentapody, Pentameter : consisting of five feet, or measures. 
P enthemimeris : consisting of five half-feet. 
Protraction : extension of a syllable beyond its normal length 

(355- 0- 
Resolution : using two short syllables for one long (357). 
Strophe : a series of verses making a recognized metrical who' 

(stanza), which may be indefinitely repeated. 
Synceresis : omitting of vowels (cogo = co-ago). 
Synapheia : elision between two verses (359. c, R.). 
Synizesis : combining two vowels in one syllable (347. c). 
Syncope : loss of a short vowel. 
Systole : shortening a syllable regularly long. 
Tetrapody, Tetrameter : consisting of four feet, or measures. 
Tetrastich : a system of four verses. 
Thesis : the accented part of a foot (358). 
Tripody, Trimeter : consisting of three feet, or measures. 
Tristich : a system of three verses. 



APPENDIX. 



Latin was originally the language of the plain of Latium, lying 
south of the Tiber, the first territory occupied and governed by the 
Romans. This language, together with the Greek, Sanskrit, Zend 
(Old Persian), the Sclavonic and Teutonic families, and the Celtic, 
are shown by comparative philology to be offshoots of a common 
stock, a language once spoken by a people somewhere in the in- 
terior of Asia, whence the different branches, by successive migra- 
tions, peopled Europe and Southern Asia. 

The name Indo-European (or Aryan) is given to the whole 
group of languages, as well as to the original language from which 
the branches sprang. By an extended comparison of the cor- 
responding roots, stems, and forms, as they appear in the different 
branches, the original (" Indo-European ") root, stem, or form can 
in very many cases be determined; and this is used as a model, 
or type, to which the variations may be referred. A few of these 
forms are given in the grammar for comparison (see, especially, 
p. 69). A few are here added for further illustration : — 

1. Case Forms (Stem vak, voice). 





Indo-Eur. 


Sansk. 


Greek. 




Latin. 


Sing. Nom. 


vaks 


vaks 


ty 




vox 


Gen. 


vak as 


vachas 


oirSs 




vocis 


Dat. 


vakai 


vache 


oiri 




voci 


Ace. 


vakam 


vacham 


oira 




vocem 


Abl. 


vakat 


vachas 


(gen. or 


dat.) 


voce(d) 


Loc. 


vaki 


vachi 


(dat.) 




(dat.) 


Instr. 


vaka 


vacha 


(dat.) 




(abl.) 


Plur. Nom. 


vakas 


vachas 


oires 




voces 


Gen. 


vakam 


vacham 


bir&v 




vocum 


Dat. 


vakbhyams 


vagbhyas 


dxfsl 




vocibus 


Ace. 


vakams 


vachas 


6-iras 




voces 


Abl. 


vakbhyams 


(as dat.) 


(gen. or 


dat.) 


vocibus 


Loc. 


vaksvas 


vaksu 


(dat.) 




(dat.) 


Instr. 


vakbhis 


vagbhis 


(dat.) 




(abl.) 



(For Verb-Forms, see p. 67.) 



302 



Appendix. 







2. Cardinal Numbers. 






Indo-Eur. 


Sanskr. 




Greek. 


Latin. 


I 


? 


[ekal 




[A] 


[unusj 


2 


dva 


dva 




Uo 


duo 


3 


tri 


tri 




Tp€?S 


tres 


4 


kvatvar 


chatur 




rirrapes 


quattuor 


5 


kvankva 


panchan 


irei/T€ 


quinque 


6 


ksvaks 


shash 




H 


sex 


7 


saptam 


saptan 




€TTT0i 


septem 


8 


aktam 


ashtun 




OKTCti 


octo 


9 


navam 


navan 




ivvea 


novem 


10 


dakam 


dasan 




Sena 


decern 


12 


dvadakam 


dva-dasan 


dcodeKa 


duodecim 


13 


tridakam 


trayo-dasan 


TpKTKaiSetca 


tredecim 


20 


dvidakanta vinsati 




€?KO(ri 


viginti 


30 


tridakanta 


trinsati 




TpiaKOPra 


triginta 


100 


kantam 


gatam 




kftCLTOV 


centum 




3. Familiar and Household Words. 








Indo-Eur. 


Sanskr. 


Greek. 


Latin. 


Father. 




patar- 


pitri- 


irar'fip 


pater 


Mother 




matar- 


matri- 


fir}T7jp 


mater 


Father 


in-law. 


svakura- 


cvagura- 


kitvpos 


socer 


Daughter-in-law. 


snusha- 


snusha- 


vv6s 


nurus 


Brother. 


bhratar- 


bhratri- 


(ppdrrjp 1 


frater 


Sister. 




svasar- (?) 


svasar- 


[aSe\<pr]] 


soror 


Master 




pati- 


pati- 


ir6(TL5 


potis 


House. 




dama- 


dama- 


fio/JLOS 


domus 


Seat. 




sadas- 


sadas- 


e'Sos 


sedes 


Year. 




vatas- 


vatsa- 


eros 


vetus (old) 


Field, 




agra- 


ajra- 


aypos 


ager 


Ox, Cow. 


gau- 


go- 


jSoOs 


bos 


Sheep (Ewe). 


avi- 


avi- 


if: 

OlS 


ovis 


Swine 


[Sow). 


su 


su- 


VS, (TVS 


sus 


Yoke. 




yuga- 


yuga- 


(vyou 


jugum 


Wagon 




rata- 


rata- 


[afia^a] 


rota (wheel) 


Middle 




madhya- 


madhya 


ixiaos 


medius 


Sweet. 




svadu- 


svadu- 


rjdvs 


suavis. 



The emigrants who peopled the Italian peninsula also divided 
into several branches, and the language of each branch had its own 
development, until they were finally crowded out by the dominant 
Latin. Fragments of some of these dialects have been preserved, 
in monumental remains, or as cited by Roman antiquarians, though 
no literature now exists in them ; and other fragments were prob- 

1 Clansman. 



Appendix, 



303 



ably incorporated in that popular or rustic dialect which formed 
the basis of the modern Italian. The most important of these 
ancient languages of Italy — not including Etruscan, which was 
of uncertain origin — were the Oscan of Campania, and the Um- 
brian of the northern districts. Some of their forms, as compared 
with the Latin, may be seen in the following : — 



Latin. 


Oscan. 


Umbrian. 


Latin. 


Oscan. 


Umbrian. 


accinere 




arkane 


neque 


nep 




alteri (loc. 


) alttrei 




per 


perum 




argento 


aragetud 




portet 




portaia 


avibus 




aveis 


quadrupedibus 


peturpursus 


censor 


censtur 




quattuor 


petora 


petur 


censebit 


censazet 




quinque 


pomtis 




contra, F. 


contrud, N 




qui, quis 


pis 


pis 


cornicem 




curnaco 


quid 


pid 




dextra 




destru 


quod 


pod 


pod 


dicere 


deicum (d 


. venum-do) 


cui 


piei 




dixerit 


dicust 




quom 




pone, pune 


duodecim 




desenduf 


rectori 


regaturei 




extra 


ehtrad 




siquis 




svepis 


facito 


factud 




stet 


stai e t(stai 


et) 


fecerit 


fefacust 




subvoco 




subocau 


fertote 




fertuta 


sum 


sum 




fratribus 




fratrus 


est 


i e st 




ibi 


ip 




sit 


set 




imperator 


embratur 




fuerit 


fust 


fust 


inter 


anter 


anter 


fuerunt 


fufans 




liceto 


licitud 




fuat 


fuid 


fuia 


magistro 




mestru 


tertium 




tertim 


medius 




mefa 


ubi 


puf 




mugiatur 




mugatu 


uterque 




puturus pid 


multare 


moltaum 




utrique 


puterei 6 


putrespe 



Fragments of early Latin are preserved in inscriptions dating 
back to the third century before the Christian era ; and some Laws 
are attributed to a much earlier date, — to Romulus (b.c. 750) and 
Numa (b.c. 700) ; and especially to the Decemvirs (Twelve Tables, 
B.C. 450) ; but in their present form no authentic dates can be 
assigned to them. Some of these are usually given in a supplement 
to the Lexicon. (See also Cic. De Legibus, especially ii. 8, iii. 3, 4.) 

Latin did not exist as a literary language, in any compositions 
known to us, until about B.C. 200. At that time it was already 
strongly influenced by the writings of the Greeks, which were the 
chief objects of literary study and admiration. The most popular 
plays, those of Plautus and Terence, were simply translations from 



304 Appendix. 

Greek, introducing freely, however, the popular dialect and the 
slang of the Roman streets. As illustrations of life and manners 
they belong as much to Athens as to Rome. And the natural 
growth of a genuine Roman literature seems to have been thus 
very considerably checked or suppressed. Orations, rhetorical 
works, letters, and histories, — dealing with the practical affairs 
and passions of politics, — seem to be nearly all that sprang direct 
from the native soil. The Latin poets of the Empire were mostly 
court-poets, writing for a cultivated and luxurious class : satires and 
epistles alone keep the flavor of Roman manners, and exhibit the 
familiar features of Italian life. 

In its use since the classic period, Latin is known chiefly as 
the language of the Civil Code, which gave the law to a large part 
of Europe ; as the language of historians, diplomatists, and philos- 
ophers during the Middle Age, and in some countries to a much 
later period ; as the official language of the Church and Court of 
Rome, down to the present day ; as, until recently, the common 
language of scholars, so as still to be the ordinary channel of com- 
munication among many learned classes and societies ; and as the 
universal language of Science, especially of the descriptive sciences, 
so that many hundreds of Latin terms, or derivative forms, must be 
known familiarly to any one who would have a clear knowledge of 
the facts of the natural world, or be able to recount them intelligibly 
to men of science. In some of these uses it may still be regarded 
as a living language ; while, conventionally, it retains its place as 
the foundation of a liberal education. 

During the classical period of the language, Latin existed not 
only in its literary or urban form, but in several local dialects, 
known by the collective name of lingua rustica, far simpler in their 
forms of inflection than the classic Latin. This, it is probable, was 
the basis of modern Italian, which has preserved many of the 
ancient words without aspirate or case-inflection, as orto (kortus), 
gente {gens). In the colonies longest occupied by the Romans, 
Latin — often in its ruder and more popular form — grew into the 
language of the common people. Hence the modern languages 
called " Romance" or "Romanic"; viz., Italian, Spanish, Portu- 
guese, and French, together with the Catalan of Northeastern 
Spain, the Provencal or Troubadour language of the South of 
France, the " Rouman " or Wallachian of the lower Danube (Rou- 
mania), and the " Roumansch " of some districts of Switzerland. 

A comparison of words in several of these tongues with Latin 
will serve to illustrate that process of phonetic decay to which 
reference has been made in the body of this Grammar, as well as 



Appendix. 



305 



the degree in which the substance of the language has remained 
unchanged. Thus, in the verb to be the general tense-system has 
been preserved from the Latin in all these languages, together 
with both of the stems on which it is built, and the personal 
endings, somewhat abraded, which can be traced throughout. The 
following exhibit the verb-forms with considerably less alteration 
than is found in the other Romanic tongues : — 



Latin. 


Italian. 


Spanish. 


Portuguese. 


French. 


Provengal. 


sum 


sono 


soy 


sou 


suis 


son (sui) 


es 


sei 


eres 


es 


es 


ses (est) 


est 


e 


es 


he 


est 


es (ez) 


sumus 


siamo 


somos 


somos 


sommes 


sem (em) 


estis 


siete 


sois 


sois 


etes 


etz (es) 


sunt 


sono 


son 


sao 


sont 


sont (son) 


eram 


era 


era 


era 


etais (sta) 


era 


eras 


eri 


eras 


eras 


etais 


eras 


erat 


era 


era 


era 


etait 


era 


eramus 


eravamo 


eramos 


eramos 


etions 


eram 


eratis 


eravate 


erais 


ereis 


etiez 


eratz 


erant 


erano 


eran 


erao 


etaient 


eran 


fin 


fui 


fui 


fui 


fus 


fui 


fuisti 


fosti 


fuiste 


foste 


fus 


fust 


fuit 


fu 


fue 


foi 


fut 


fo (fon) 


fuimus 


fummo 


fuimos 


fomos 


fumes 


fom 


fuistis 


foste 


fuisteis 


fostos 


futes 


fotz 


fuerunt 


furono 


fueron 


forao 


furent 


foren 


sim 


sia 


sea 


seja 


sois 


sia 


sis 


sii 


seas 


sejas 


sois 


sias 


sit 


sia 


sea 


seja 


soit 


sia 


simus 


siamo 


seamos 


sejamos 


soyons 


siam 


sitis 


siate 


seais 


sejais 


soyez 


siatz 


sint 


siano 


sean 


sejao 


soient 


sian 


fuissem 


fossi 


fuese 


fosse 


fusse 


fos 


fuisses 


fossi 


fueses 


fosses 


fusses 


fosses 


fuisset 


fosse 


fuese 


fosse 


fut 


fossa (fos) 


fuissemus 


fossimo 


fuesemos 


fossemos 


fussions 


fossem 


fuissetis 


foste 


fueseis 


fosseis 


fussiez 


fossetz 


fuissent 


fossero 


fuesen 


fossem 


fussent 


fossen 


es 


sii 


se 


se 


sois 


sias 


esto 


sia 


sea 


seja 


soit 


sia 


este 


siate 


sed 


s£de 


soyez 


siatz 


sunto 


siano 


sean 


sejao 


soient 


sian 


esse 


essere 


ser 


ser 


etre 


esser 


[sens] 


essendo 


siendo 


sendo 


etant 


essent 



306 



Appendix. 



PRINCIPAL ROMAN WRITERS. 



T. Maccius Plautus, Comedies 

Q. Ennius, Annals, Satires, &r*c. (Fragments) . 
M. Porcius Cato, Husbandry, Antiquities, dr^c. 
M. Pacuvius, Tragedies (Fragments) .... 
P. Terentius Afer (Terence), Comedies . . . 
C. Lucilius, Satires (Fragments) ..... 
L. Attius (or Accius), Tragedies (Fragments) . 
M. Terentius Varro, Husbandry, Antiquities, &*c. 
M. Tullius Cicero, Orations, Letters, Dialogues 

C. Julius Caesar, Com?nentaries 

T. Lucretius Cams, Poem " De Rerum Natura " 
C. Valerius Catullus, Miscellaneous Poe?ns . . 
C. Sallustius Crispus (Sallust), Histories . . 
Cornelius Nepos, Lives of Famous Commanders 
P. Vergilius Maro (Virgil), Eclogues, Georgis, jEneid 
Q. Horatius Flaccus (Horace), Satires, Odes, Epistles 

Albius Tibullus, Elegies 

Sex. Aurelius Propertius, Elegies 

T. Livius Patavinus (Livy), Ro?nan History . . . 
P. Ovidius Naso (Ovid), Metamorphoses, Fasti, &*c. 

M. Valerius Maximus, Anecdotes, dr*c 

C. Velleius Paterculus, Roman History 

Pomponias Mela, Husbandry &> Geography . . . 

A. Persius Flaccus, Satires 

L. Annaeus Seneca, Philos. Letters, dr^cj Tragedies . 
M. Annaeus Lucanus, Historical Poem " Pharsalia " . 

O. Curtius Rufus, History of Alexander 

C. Plinius Secundus (Pliny), Nat. Hist., dr'c. . . . 
C. Valerius Flaccus, Heroic Poem " Argonautica " 
P. Papinius Statius, Heroic Poems " Thebais," &c. . 

C. Silius Italicus, Heroic Poem "Punica" .... 

D. Junius Juvenalis (Juvenal), Satires 

L. Annaeus Florus, Historical A bridgment . . 

M. Valerius Martialis (Martial), Epigrams . . . 

M. Fabius Ouintilianus, Rhetoric 

C. Cornelius Tacitus, Annals, History, &*c 

C. Plinius Caecilius Secundus (Pliny Junior), Letters 

C. Suetonius Tranquillus, The Twelve Ccesars . . . 
Apuleius, Philos. Writings, " Metamorphoses " . . 
A. Gellius, Miscellanies, " Noctes Atticae " . . . . 
f Q. Septimius Florens Tertullianus, Apologist . . 
\ M. Minucius Felix, Apologetic Dialogue .... 
f Firmianus Lactantius, Theology 

D. Magnus Ausoni us, Miscellaneous Poems . 

Ammianus Marcellinus, Roman History 

Claudius Claudianus, Poe?ns, Panegyrics, d^c. . . . 
t Aurelius Prude ntius Clemens, Christian Poe?ns . 

•f Aurelius Angus tinus, Confessions, Discourses, &^c. . 
Anicius Manlius Boethius, Philosophical Dialogues . 



B.C. 

254-184 

239-169 

234-149 

220-130 

195-159 

I48-I03 

170-75 

I16-28 

I06-43 

IOO-44 

95-52 

87-47 

86-34 

70-19 

65-8 

54-18 

51-15 

59-A.D. 17 

43-AD. l8 

-31 

19-31 

-50 

A.D. 34-62 

-6 S 

39-65 

? 

23-79 

-88 

61-96 

25-100 

40-120 

-120 

43-104 

40-118 

60-118 

61-115 

70- 

110- 

about-180 

160-240 

about -250 

250-325 

-380 

-395 

-408 

348-410 

354-430 
470-520 



t Christian writers. 



INDEX. 



INDEX. 



Note. — The references are to pages. The letters refer to subsections ; figures 
in parentheses to the numbered paragraphs. 

The letter n. signifies Note ; R., Remark ; n (italic), Foot-note. 



A or ab, 101 ; after peto or postulo, 
1 66, R. ; after participles of ori- 
gin, 170. a; with abl. of agent 
after passives, 171 (246). 

a, Greek nouns in (3d decl.), 20. 

a as stem-vowel of 1st conjug. 71. 
c; 72. a; n; 73. a; in subj. 74. 
b, c. 

Abbreviations of Praenomens, 36. 

Ablative, 13. f ; ending in abus, 
16. e ; in i, 24 (57), 42 (87. a) ; 
in e, of adjectives, 42. b; in is 
(3d decl.), 20 (47. b) ; in ubus, 
31. d ; neuter as Adverb, 43. d ; 
eo . . . quo, 57. c ; after Prepo- 
sitions, 10 1. b; with ex or de 
for partit. gen., 149. c ; of crime 
or penalty, 152. b ; with dono, 
&c. 156. d ; with pro (for de- 
fence, &c), 163; Syntax, 167- 
177 ; signification, 167 ; of sep- 
aration, 168; with compounds, 
169; of place whence, id.; of 
freedom and want (opus and 
usus), id. ; of source, 170 ; after 
natus, &c, id. a; of Material, 
id. c. ; of Cause, id. (245) ; with 
dignus, &c, 171. a; of Agent 
with ab, id. (246); after Com- 
paratives, 172 ; after alius, &c. 
id. d ; of Means, &c, 173 ; of 



Accompaniment, id. a; after 
utor, &c, 174 ; of Difference, 
id.; of Quality, id. (251. N.); 
of Description, id. a; of Price, 
175; of Specification, id.; Lo- 
cative, id. ; Ablative Absolute, 
lute, 176; used adverbially, id. 
b; how translated, 177 ; of Time 
when, 177; how long, id. b; of 
Distance, 178. b; Place whence, 
id.a; for Locative, 179./; Way 
by which, id. g ; with palam, &c, 
182. b ; ab for Agent, 183 ; of 
Gerundive, 212. 

Abounding, words of, with abl. 
173. c ; with gen. 154. 

Absolute and Relative Time, 234. 

Abstract nouns in plural, 33. c ; 
with neuter adjective, 125. c ; 
expressed by neuter adjective, 
127. 0, b, 

abus in dat. plur. of 1st decl. 16. e. 

ac, see atque; ac si, 224. 

Acatalectic verse, 276. a. 

Accent, Rules of, 8 ; marks of, N. 

accidit, synopsis of, 95. 

Accompaniment, ablative of, with 
cum, 173. a. 

Accusative, 13 (31. d) ; in im, 24 
(56. a> b) ; in is, id. 58 ; neuter, 
as Adverb, 97. d ; fern., 98, e ; 



3io 



Index. 



after Prepositions, 101. a; as 
Object, 120; with verbs of re- 
membering, &c., 152 (219) ; with 
Impersonals, 153. b ; with juvo, 
medeor, &c, 157. a, b; with 
dative after verbs, 155 ; after 
compounds with ante, &c, 159 
(228. a) ; with ad, for dative, 
162. b ; after propior, &c, 162. e ; 
Syntax, 164-167 ; as Direct Ob- 
ject, 164; with verbs of feeling 
and taste, id. b, c ; after com- 
pounds of circum and trans, id. 
d; with impersonals, 165. e; 
cognate, 165 (238) ; constructive 
use (constructio prcegnans), id. b ; 
Two Accusatives, id. (239) ; pas- 
sive use, with verbs of asking, 
&c, 166, R. ; Adverbial, id. a; 
synecdochical, id. c ; of Exclam- 
ation, id. d ; of duration and ex- 
tent, id. e; 177, 178; as subject 
of Infinitive, 167./; with pridie, 
propior, &c, 182. a; of Subject, 
in Indirect Discourse, 239 ; of 
Anticipation, 246, c ; in Substan- 
tive Clauses after verbs of Prom- 
ising, 240; of Gerundive, 212. 

Accusing and Acquitting, verbs 
of, 152. 

-aceus, adjective ending, 112. g. 

Actions, names of, no; nouns of, 
with gen. 150. 

ad, meaning near, 181. f. 

adamas, 26. e. 

-ades, patronymic, in. b. 

adimo, construction of, 159 (229). 

Adjectives, defined, 10. b; like 
nouns, 14. n ; inflection, 37-43 ; 
of 1st and 2d declensions, 27 '> 
of 3d declension, 39 ; of two or 
three terminations, (84, 84. a) ; 
of one termination, 40. a; the 
inflection of Comparatives, 41 



(86) ; of common gender, 42 
(88. b) ; cases of, used as Ad- 
verbs, 43. d ; Comparison, 43- 
45 ; used as nouns, 42 (88. a) ; 
45 (9 1 - a ) \ 46 (93- /) 1 deriva- 
tive, in; verbal, 112; com- 
pound, 115. d; as modifiers, 
121 (178. a) ; adjective phrase, 
id. (179); Rule of Agreement, 
124 (186); as Appositive, id. 
c; rule of Gender, 125; agree- 
ment by Synesis, id. d ; used as 
nouns, 126; demonstrative, as 
Pronouns, 129 (195); neuter 
adj. as noun, 127 (189) ; pos- 
sessive or derivative, id. (190); 
as denoting a class, id. a; for 
obj. gen. id. b; as qualifying 
Act, 128 (191); two compara- 
tives with quam, id. (192) ; 
superlatives, with medius, &c, 
id. (193) ; with genitive, 151. 

admodum, 46. d. 

Adonian Verse, 285. 

Adverbs defined, n./; how form- 
ed, 37. b; 40. d; 41. (86. b) ; 43. 
d ; compared, 45 ; Numeral, 49 ; 
used correlatively as conjunc- 
tions, 57 ; derived from Adjec- 
tives, 97 (148; the various case- 
forms, Note) ; classification, of 
Place, 98 ; correlative forms of, 
id. n; of Time, Degree, &c, 99; 
Syntax, 140; equivalent to pro- 
noun and preposition, id. a; 
qualify participles used as nouns, 
id. c. 

Adverbial Phrase, 121 (179). 

Adversative Conjunctions, 104. b. 

adversus (prep.), 100. n. 

je (diphthong), 1 ; sound of, 7. N. 

Affix, close and open, 10. N. 

Agency, nouns of, 109. 

Agent, abl. of, with ab, 120, 171. 



Index. 



3ii 



AGH, verb-root, 94. n. 

Agnomen, 36. b. 

Agreement, 122 (181) ; in predicate, 

124 (185); forms of, 123. 
ai, gen. or dat. of 1st decl. 15. a. 
aio, 94. a. 
al, ar, as neuter ending, 22. c ; list, 

albus, compared with candidus, 
44- n. [280. 

Alcaic Strophe, 287. Alcmanian, 

ali-, 97. nt 

alienus, 38. n. y 127 (190). 

aliquis, infl. 56; 136 (202. a, b). 

-alis, -aris, in. d. 

alius . . . alius, 138 (203) ; with 
abl., 172. d. 

Alphabet, 1 ; vowels and diph- 
thongs, 1(1); consonants 2 (2-5, 
see Table, p. 2) ; early forms, 3. 

alter . . . alter, 138 (203). 

ambo, 48. b. 

Although, how expressed, 225, a-g, 
233- e. 

amplius, without quam, 172. c. 

an, anne, annon, 143 (211), 144. 

Anacrusis, 272. g. 

Anapaestic Verse, 291. 

animi (locative), 151. c. 

Answer, form of, 144. 

ante with quam, 183 (262). 

ante diem, 180. e. 

Antecedent, its use with relative, 

J 34> 135 (20°)' 

Antepenult, 8 (Defin.). 

antequam, 237. 

Aorist (historical perfect), 63. n, 1 
195. N. 

apage, 94./. 

a parte, 168, 181. b. 

Apodosis, 186. R. ; 215, 216. 

Apposition, 123 (184); with Loca- 
tive, id. c ; of genitive with Pos- 
sessives, 124 (184. d). 



aptus ad, 162. b ; aptus qui, 233./. 
Archilochian, 284; Aristophanic, 285. 
Arrangement of words, 258-262. 
Arsis and Thesis, 275 (358). 
As, unit of value, 296. 
as, gen. of 2d decl. 16 (36. b). 
Asclepiadic Verse, 286, 288. 
Asking, verbs of (2 accus.), 165. c. 
Aspirate (h), originally a palatal, 

I. N. 

-assere asfut. infin. 75. e£ 

Assibilation, 5. N. 

Assimilation of consonants, 4./. 

ast, 105. b. 

Asyndeton, 141. b. 

at, 105. b ; at vero, 141. e. 

at-, stem-ending of patrials, 23 

(54- 3 ) 

ater, compared with niger, 44. N. 

Athos, infl. of, 18 (43). 

Atlas, 26 (64). 

atque (or ac), 105. a. 

atqui, 105. b. 

Attraction of relative, 134. a. 

Attributive adjective, gender, 125. 

-atus, adjective ending, 112./. 

audeo, 89 (136). 

ausim, 90. a. 

ausus, 205. b. 

aut, 106. c ; 144. R. 

autem, position, 106. k. 

Authority in Prosody, 263. 

ave (or have), 94./". 

ax, adjective ending, 112. b ; ad- 
jectives in, with gen. 151. b. 

aya as origin of verb-forms, 72. n. 1 

Bacchiac Verse, 292. b. 
bam, tense-ending, 65. n. 1 
Bargaining, verbs of, with ger. 209. 

d ; with subst. clause, 241. d. 
basis inflected, 26 (64). 
belli (locative), 179. d. 
-ber, names of months in, 39. 



312 



Index. 



-bilis (passive verbal), 112. m. 
Birth, place of, in ablative, 170. b. 
bo, verb-ending, 65. n, 
bonus declined, yj. 
bos, inflection and stem, 25. 
bri-, as stem-ending of nouns, 22 
(51. b) ; adjectives, 39 (84. a). 

C = g, 3 ( 6 ); for qu, id. (7). 
Ccesura, 275. b; masc. and fern., 
278. R. 

Calendar, 295. 

capitis, with verbs of accusing, 
&c, 152. a. 

Capys, 26 (64). 

Cardinal Numbers, 47. 

caro, infl. of, 25 (61). 

Case-endings, table, 15. 

Case-forms, defective, 34. 

Cases, 13; constructions of, 145- 
183 ; derivation and meaning, 
145; Genitive, 146; Dative, 
154; Accusative, 164; Voca- 
tive, Ablative, 167 ; time and 
place, 177 ; use of Prepositions, 
181. 

Catalectic verse, 276. a. 

causa, with gen., 148. £7 iji.c. 

Causal Clauses, 233. 

Causal conjunctions, 104. c. 

Cause, clauses of, 233. 

Caution and effort, verbs of (with 
subst. clause), 242. e. 

cave in prohibitions, 190. a ; 3 242. r. 

-ce, enclitic (hie, &c), 51. n, 52. n. 

cedo (defective), 94./. 

celer, special forms of, 40. c. 

celo, with 2 accus., 166. d. 

certe, certo, 100. c. 

cette, 94./. 

ceu, 224 (312). 

Characteristic, clause of, 227. n, 
230, 232. 

chelys, 26. 



Chiasmus, 259. f. 

Choliambic Trimeter, 281. c. 

Choriambic Verse, 285. 

ci or ti, assibilation of, 5. a. 

-cip (stem-ending), 19 (45. a) 

Circumflex accent, 8. N. 

Cities, names of, gender, 12 (29. a). 

clam, as preposition, 182. c. 

Classes, plural names of, 2>Z (?6 2 ) 

Clauses, 122 ; Syntax of depend 
ent, 227-253 ; conditional, 227 
final, 228 ; consecutive, 230 
causal, 233 ; temporal, 234 ; sub' 
stantive, 238 ; intermediate, 251 

clienta (feminine form), 41. c. 

Close syllables, 6. d. 

coepi, 93. 

Cognate Accusative, 165. 

Cognomen, 36. 

Collective noun with plural verb, 
139. c. ^ 

Combination of words in spell- 
ing. 5- 

Command, expressions of, 190, 
241; as conditions, 222. b: in 
indirect discourse, 251. 

Commanding, verbs of, with da- 
tive, 157; with ace. id. a; with 
purpose-clause, 241. a, 244. h. 

committere ut, 243. e. 

Common gender, 13 ; adjectives 
of, 42. 

Comparative Particles, 104. e ; use 
with primary tenses, 224. R. 

Comparative Sufnx, 43. n. 

Comparatives, inflection of, 41 ; 
meaning, 46 ; construction, 172. 

Comparison of Adjectives, 43 ; 
irregular, 44; defective, 44 (91) ; 
of Adverbs, 45. 
Complement with copula, 120. 
Complementary infinitive, 191. 
Completed action, tenses of, 58. 
^2 ; 62 ( 1 1 5 2 J) ; 74- /, g'> 96 



Index. 



313 



(147. b) ; their idiomatic use, 
198. 

Complex Sentence, 122. b. 

complures, compluria, 42 (86. c). 

Compound Sentences, 122 (180). 

Compound words, 115: inflection 
of, id. n ; of inflected forms, 
116; prepositions in, id. (170); 
verbs with dative, 158; of ab, 
de, ex, 159 (229). 

Conative present, 195. b; imper- 
fect, 197. c. 

Concession, verbs of, 241. c. 

Concessive conjunctions, 105. f; 
their use 106. t, 225. 

Concessive subjunctive, 187. c. 

Concords (forms of Agreement), 

™3- 

Condemning, verbs of, 152 (220). 

Conditional Clauses, 122. d. 

Conditional Particles, 104. d ; 224. 

Conditional Sentences, 214-226; 
classified, 216. 

Conditions, nature of, 214; sim- 
ple, 217; future, id.; contrary 
to fact, 219; indie, in apodosis, 
220. b, c ; general, 221 ; dis- 
guised, 222 ; omitted, 223 ; in 
indirect discourse, 250. 

confit, 93. 

Conjugation, 71-87 ; the four regu- 
lar forms, 71 ; formation of, y^ 
(126) ; paradigms of, 76-87. 

Conjunctions defined, 11 (25.^); 
correlative, 57 ; classification, 
103 ; special meaning, 105 ; syn- 
tax, 140, 141 ; doubled, 141. e. 

Conjunctivus modesties, 223. b. 

Connecting Vowel (so-called), 
72. n. 

Connectives, relatives used as, 
122./ 136. e. 

Consecutive Clause, 122. e ; char- 
acteristic and result, 230. 



Consecutive conjunctions, 105. h. 
Consonants, classification of, 2 ; 
changes, 4. 

Consonant-stems (3d. decl.), 19. 

constare with abl. of material 
170. c. 

constat, Synopsis, 95. 

Constructio prcegnans, 165. b. 

Constructions of Cases, 145-183. 

Constructions, Synopsis of, 254. 

Contention, words of, with cum, 
173. b. 

contentus with abl., 176. b. 

Continued action, See Tenses. 

Contraction of vowels, 3. c ; in pro- 
sody, 264. c ; of syllables, 272. d. 

Contracting, &c, verbs of, with 
gerundive, 209. d. 

Co-ordinate conjunctions, 104. a ; 
clauses, 122. a. 

Copula, 120; copulative verbs, 
id. 

Copulative conjunctions, 104. a. 

Correlatives, 56; rendered as, 
57. b ; THE, c. 

Countries, names of, gender 12. b. 

credo (parenthetic), 260 c. 

Cretic verse, 292. c. 

Crime or charge, gen. of, 152. 

cuicuimodi (gen. or loc), 55. b. 

cujas, 56./. 

cum (prep.), as enclitic with pro- 
nouns, 51. e; 55 (104. e) ; use 
of, contention and accompani- 
ment, 173; exchange, 175. c. 

cum (conj.), 106. g; 233. n. ; 233. 
N., c ; 234; in temporal clauses, 
235 ; causal and concessive, 236. 

cum . . . turn, 57.^; 141. </; 237. £. 

-cumque added to relatives, 55. a. 

-cundus, adjective ending, 113. p. 

cup-, stem-ending, 19, 

Customary action as a general con- 
dition, 221. b. 



3H 



Index, 



D final, anciently t, 3 (8). 

Dactylic Verse, 277. 

Daphnis, 26. 

Dates, 180. e ; 294. 

Dative, 13 ; endings, 15 ; in abus, 
16. e; in i (of unus, &c), 38; 
Syntax, 154-163 ; indirect ob- 
ject, 154 ; connected with loca- 
tive, id. N. ; uses of, 155; with 
transitives, id. ; use of dono, 
etc., 156. d ; with verbs meaning 
favor, &c, 157 ; use of, compared 
with accus., 157. c ; after verbal 
nouns, 158. d ; certain verbs, id. 
e ; compounds of ad, ante, &c, 
id. (228); poetic use, 159. c; 
with passive used impersonally, 
160 (230) ; of possession, 160 
(231); nomen est, id. b; of 
agency with gerundive, id. (232); 
of service, 161 (233) ; with ad- 
jectives, id. (234) ; of fitness, &c, 
162 ; of reference, 162 (235) ; 
ethical, 163 ; with words of con- 
tention (poetic), 173. b ; of Ge- 
rundive, 211. 

dea, inflection of, 16. e. 

Declarative Sentence, 119 (171. a). 

Declension of Nouns, 14-36; how 
produced, 14. n; general rules, 
14 (33) ; termination, 15 (34) ; of 
Nouns, i. 15, 16; ii. 16-19; iii. 

19-3°; iv - 3°~3 2 ; v - 3 2 > 33- 

Declensions (five), characteristics 
of, 14 (32). 

dedi as reduplicated stem, 65. 

Defective Nouns, 33. 

Defective Adjectives, 38. d ; com- 
parison, 45. 

Defective Verbs, 58 (no), 192. 

Definitions of Syntax, 119; of fig- 
ures in grammar, rhetoric, and 
prosody, 298. 

dent, 93. 



deinde, denique, 100. d, 

Delos, inflection of, 18. 

delphin, 25. 

Denominative Verbs, 113. 

Deponent Verbs, 59. n. 2 ; conju- 
gation, how determined, 71. N. ; 
inflection, 88. 

Derivation of Words, 107-116. 

Derivative Forms, 109; Nouns, 
id.; endings, id. n 1 ; Adjectives, 
in ; Verbs, 114. 

Description, imperfect used in, 63. 
b ; 197. a. 

Desiderative verbs (in urio), 115. 

Determining, verbs of, 241. d. 

deus, inflection, 18. /. 

Diaeresis, 275. c. Diastole, 277./. 

Dido, inflection, 26 (64). 

dies, inflection, 32; gender, id. 
(7^); formdii, id. (74. a). 

difficilis, comparison, 43. b. 

dignus, with abl. 171. a ; with rel- 
ative clause, 233. f. 

Dimeter Iambic verse, 282. c. 

Diminutives : adjectives, 44. f; 
formation of, III. a; verbs, 
114. d. 

Diphthongs, 1 ; sound of, 7 ; quan- 
tity, 8, 264. 

Diptotes, 34. 

Direct Discourse, 248. 

Disjunctive Conjunctions, 104. a. 

Dissimilation, 4. e. 

Distance, ace. or abl. 178. b. 

Distributive Numerals, 48. 

divum (divom) for deorum, 18./. 

-do, -go, feminine endings, 20. b. 

domi, locative, 31. /; 179. d. 

domus, inflection, 31 (70. /) ; dou- 
ble stem, 34. n. 

donee, 238, 

dono, etc., constr. of, 1 56. d. 

Doubtful gender, 13 (30. a). 

Dual forms, 48. n. 



Index. 



3i» 



Dubitative Subjunctive, 189 ; in 
indir. questions, 246. b. 

dubito an, non . . . qu.n, 244. R. 

due (imperat.), 75. c. 

dum, with present, 196. e ; to re- 
pres. pres. participle, 205. c: as 
proviso, 226, 238 ; purpose, 237. 

dummodo, 226, 238. 

duo, inflection of, 48. 

Duration, ace. 166. e, 177 ; abl., id. b. 

-dus, participle in, see Gerundive. 

E (preposition), see ex. 

Early forms of Alphabet, 3 ; of 
Prosody, 292. 

ecquis, ecquid, 56. i. 

Ecthlipsis, 276 d. 

edo, 91 (140). 

Effecting, verbs of, 243. e ; 244. h. 

effieri, 93. 

Effort, verbs of, 242. e. 

egeo with gen. 154 (223), i6g.f. 

ejusmodi, 148. a, 

elephans, 26. 

Elision, 276 c. 

Ellipsis, 121. N. 

Emphasis as affected by arrange- 
ment, 259. 

Enclitic controls accent 8 (19. c). 

English Method of pronunciation, 
7 ; to be used in translation, 
citation, &c, id. N. 

enim, 106. d ; position, id. k. 

ens, part, of esse, 67. n. 

eo (irreg. verb), inflection, 92; use 
in idiomatic phrases, 178. R. 

eo . . . quo, the . . . the, 57. c ; 
174. R. 

Epicene nouns, 13. b. 

Epistolary tenses, 199. 

-er (nom. ending), 2d decl., 18, 
19 ; 3d decl., 21 (48. c) ; 22 (51. 
b); 23 (54I); 29(67. b)\ of ad- 
jectives, 38 (82) ; 39 (84. a). 



ergo, 106. e ; with gen. 148. g. 
-erim, ero, as tense-ending, 65. ;*. 1 
es, root of esse, 4 (11. a); bj. 

n± 
es, as nom. ending, 21 (51. ) ; 

list of nouns in es, 71. 
escit, 69. 
esse and its compounds, 6y- /o ; 

inflection, 68 ; comparative forms 

of present, 6j. n ; participle, id ; 

inflection of compounds, 70. 
est qui, 232. a; est cum, 234. R. 
est ut, 243. a. 

et . . . et, both . . . and, 106. h. 
etenim, 106. d. 
etiam, 99 (151. a); in answers, 

144. a. 
etsi, 106. i ; 225. c. 
-etum (noun-ending), 112. i. 
Etymology, 1-116. 
Euphonic change : vowels, 3 ; con- 
sonants, 4. 
evenit, synopsis, 95. 
Exchanging, verbs of, 175, c. 
Exclamations, accus. 166. d ; with 

infin. 194. 
Exclamatory sentences, 119. c ; ace. 

and infin. 194. 
Existence, general expressions of, 

232. a. 
Expecting, hoping, &c, verbs of, 

240./ 
exsulare, 90. b. 

fac (imperat.), 75 c. 

facilis, comparison, 43. b. 

facio, 92 (142); compounds, 93. 

a, b ; facio ut, 243. e. 
fames, abl. of, 24. c. 
fari (def. verb), 94. c. 
fas, with Supine, 213. 
faxo, 92 (142). 
Fearing, verbs of (ne or ut), 

242./ 



3i6 



Index. 



Feeling, nouns of, with gen. 150; 

with quod- clause, 245. b. 
Feminine, rule of gender, 12. 
fer (imperat.), 75. c. 
fero, 91. 

Festivals, plural names of, 33. 1 
fido (semi-deponent), 89. 
Filling, verbs of, with ablative, 

*73- *- 
Final Clauses, 122. e ; 228-230. 
Final Conjunctions, 105. h. 
Final vowels, quantity of, 265 ; not 

affected by Position, 265. R. 
Finite verb (subject nom.), 119. 
fio, 92, 93 ; defective compounds, 

93- c. 
First Conjugation, formation, 74. 

a; inflection, 76-79; verbs of, 

79; derivation, 113 (166. a). 
fisus as pres. part. 205. b. 
Foot in Prosody, 272 ; classif. of 

feet, 273. 
fore ut, 96. c ; 204./; 243. e. 
forem, 69. 

foris (locative), 179. d. 
Formation of Words, 107-116. 
forsitan (fors sit an), 223. a. 
Fourth Conjugation, formation, 74. 

d ; inflection, 86; verbs of, 87 ; 

derivation, 114 (166. d). 
Fractions, expressed, 49. d y 297. 
Frequentative verbs, 114. n. 2 
French, derivations through, 6. n. 
fretus with abl. 176. b. 
frugi, comparison, 44 (90). 
fruor, fungor, with abl. 174. 
fuam, 69. 

fui, derivation, 6y. n. 
Future (tense) : use, 62 ; vowel 

change in, 66 ; of infin. pass., 

how formed, 96 ; of Imperat. 

190. d, e ; uses of, 197. 
Future Perfect, 62; Syntax, 199; 

for simple fut., id. R. ; repre- 



sented in subj., 200. R. ; in indir. 

disc. ; in protasis, 218. c. 
Futurum in praterito, 214. n. 
fuvimus, fuvisset, 69. 

G = c (in early use), 3. 

Games, plur. names of, ^3- 

gaudeo, 89 ; with loc. abl. 176. b. 

Gender, natural or grammatical, 
11, 12; common, 13; of 1st 
decl., 15; of 2d decl., 17; of 
3d decl , 26, 27 ; of 4th decl., 
31 ; of 5th decl., 32. 

General truth in secondary tenses 
(by sequence of tenses), 201. d. 

Genitive, 13; plural in um, 15. 
f; of 1st decl. in ai and as, 15. 
a, b ; of 3d decl. in ium, 23 ; in 
ius, 38 ; in appos. with pos- 
sessive, 124. d, 133. e ; supplied 
by possessives, 127 (190), 133. 

a, e, 147. a; Syntax, 146, 154; 
subjective, 146; in predicate, 
147. c (sapientis, d) ; of mate- 
rial, e ; for appositive, 148. f; 
of quality, id. ; of measure, id. 

b, 178. a; partitive, id.; objec- 
tive, 150; with adjectives, 151 ; 
with verbs, 152; of memory, 
&c. ; of charge and penalty, id. ; 
of feeling, 153 ; impersonals, id. ; 
miseret, &c, id. b; interest, 
id. (222) ; of plenty and want, 
154; potior, id. a; with egeo 
and indigeo, 169. f ; of value, 
175. #, b f 148. c ; of gerundive, 
210, 211. 

Gentile names, 36, in. c. 

Gerund, 58, 62; Syntax, 209-212. 

Gerundive, 58. «, 3 61. d ; partici- 
pial use, 208 ; of utor, fruor, 
&c, 209. c ; with verbs of pur- 
pose, id. d ; used like gerund, 
id.; gerundive uses, 210; spe- 



Index. 



317 



cial uses of genitive, 211 ; da- 
tive, id. ; ace, abl., 212. 

Glyconic verse, 285, 288. 

Gnomic perfect, 198. c. 

Grammar, study of, 117, 118. 

gratia with gen. \$>g; 171. c, 

Greek forms compared with Latin, 
see Notes, pp. 37, 38, 40, 46, 64, 
67, 107, 113, 131, 172, 217. 

Greek nouns of 1st decl., 16; of 
2d, 18 ; of 3d, 25. 

H (aspirate), 1 (1. N.) ; omission 
of, 5 (12. b). 

tiabeo (imperat.), meaning con- 
sider, 190. e; with infin., 193 
(273. a) ; with perf. part., 207. c. 

hactenus, 182. n. 

Hadria, masc, 15. 

Happening, verbs of, 243. a. 

have, 94./. 

Hemiolic measures, 273. 

heros, infl., 26 (64). 

Heteroclite nouns, 34. 

Heterogeneous nouns, 35 (79). 

Hexameter verse, 277. 

Hiatus, 277 e. 

hie, inflection, 52; stem, 51. n; 
use, 53. 

hiemps (for hiems), 4. c. 

Hindering, verbs of, with ne or 
quominus, 242. e. 

Hindrance, verbs of, with quomi- 
nus, 231. c; negative, with 
quin, id. d ; implied in relat. 
clause, 233. e. 

Historical Infinitive, 194. 

Historical Present, 196. d; se- 
quence of tenses with, 202. e. 

Hoping, verbs of, 240. f; with 
simple infin., id. 

Horace, metres of, 287-291. 

horizon, infl., 25. 

Hortatory Subjunctive, 187. 



hospita (fern, of hospes), 41. c. 
humi (locative), 179. d. 

I of perfect stem, 72. nS 

i suppressed in obit, conicio, &c, 

i (single), in gen. of nouns in ius, 
ium, 17. b ; as gen. of nouns in 
es, 19. a. 

i-declension, 22. n* ; signs of, 23; 
of adjectives, 37. n. 

i, abl. in, 24 (57). 

Iambic Verse, 280; Strophe, 281. 

-ibam, for iebam (4th conj.), 
75. e\ 

ic- as stem-ending, 19 (45. c). 

Ictus, 275 a. 

id quod, 135. e. 

id temporis, 149. a,' 6 166. b. 

idcirco, as correlative, 106. e, 
228. a. 

idem, infl., 52; derivation, 51. c; 
use, 130. e. 

Ides ( 1 3th or 1 5th of month ), 294. b. 

idoneus, compared, 44. d ; idon- 
eus qui, 233. /. 

-ier in infin. passive, 75. eA 

-ies in 5th decl. (materies), 32 
(74. b, n*). 

igitur, meaning, 106. e ; position, 
id. k. 

ii in gen. of 2d decl. 17. n 2 ; in ad- 
jectives, 37. a. 

-ilis, derivative ending, in. d, 
112. m. 

Illative conjunctions, 104. c. 

ille, inflection, 52 ; use, 53 ; com- 
pounds with -ce, 52 (101. a). 

-illo, verb-ending (dim.), 114. d. 

-im, accus. ending in 3d decl., 23 
(56), 24. 

-im in pres. subjunctive, 75. el* 

immane quam, 247. e. 

immo, how used, 142. d. 



3i8 



Index, 



Imperative mood, 60; personal 
endings, 64 (b) i 67, 190. 

Imperative sentence, 119; forms 
of, 190. 

Imperfect tense, distinguished 
from perfect, 63 (b, n l ) ; uses 
of, 196, 197. 

Impersonal Verbs, synopsis, 95 ; 
classification, 96 ; passive of 
intransitives, 96. c ; Syntax : 
miseret, &c, 153, libet, licet, 
158. e, 165. e. 

Impure Syllables, 6. c. 

in, constr. of, 101. c. 

Inceptive (or Inchoative) verbs, 
formation in -sc, 114. 

Incomplete action, tenses of, see 
Continued^ &c. 

Increment of nouns and verbs, 267. 

Indeclinable nouns, 34 ; rule of 
gender, 13. 

Indefinite Pronouns, Syntax of, 
55, 136-138 ; form a conditional 
expression, 215. N., 227. 

Indefinite subject omitted, 139. b ; 
expressed by 2d person, 187. a ; 
as a general condition, 221. a. 

Indicative mood, meaning and 
use, 59. a, 185 ; in apodosis 
contrary to fact, 220. b, c ; 223. c. 

indigeo, with gen. 154, 169./. 

indignus, see dignus. 

Indirect Discourse, 247-253 ; nar- 
rative, 248 ; conditions, ques- 
tions, commands, 250. 

Indirect Questions, 143. r., 245. 

Indo-European forms, 67. n. 

induo, double constr. of, 156. d. 

Infinitive Clause, 239. 

Infinitive Mood, 58. n 1 ; use, 60 
(d) ; Syntax, 191-194; as sub- 
ject, 191 ; complementary, id. ; 
optional use, 192. a ; with subj. 
accus., id. ; case of predicate, 



193. b; as meaning Purpose, 
id. ; Greek use, id. d ; of excla- 
mation, 194; historical, id, 
tenses of, 202-204 J perfect, 203. 
d, e ; future, with fore, 204. f. 

infit (defect.), 93. 

Inflection, defin. of, 9 (20) ; ter- 
mination of, id. (20. b) ; how 
modified, 10 (24) ; of declension 
and conjugation, 11. 

Influence, verbs of, with ut-clause, 
241. a. 

injussu (def.), 32 (71. b). 

inquam, 94. b ; its position, 260. c* 

Insertion of m in sumpsi, &c., 4. c. 

instar with gen. 148. g. 

Intensive verbs, 114. 

inter se, reciprocal use of, 51. d; 

132/ 

interest, constr. of, 153; with ad, 

154. b. 
interned, 93. 

Interjections, defined, n ; list, 105. 
Interlocked order of words, 260. k. 
Intermediate Clauses, Syntax of, 

251. 
Interrogative Pronouns, 54 ; Parti- 
cles, 99. d ; words, 143. e. 
Interrogative Sentences, 119; 

forms of, 142-144. 
-io, noun-ending, no. b. 
-io, verb-ending of 3d conj., 7c. £; 2 

7A-c; 83. 
Ionic verse, 289 (16). 
ipse, 51; inflection, 52 ; use, 53; 

compared with se, 53. n ; special 

use, 130, 131. 
iri in fut. infin. passive, 92 (141), 

96 (147. c). 
Irrational Measures, 274, 284. 
is, inflection, 52 ; use as correl. 53. 
is, ace. plur.-ending, 24 (58); of 

adjectives, 40 (84. b) ; 42 (8y. c. 
Islands, names of, loc. use, 179. R. 



Index. 



3*9 



isse, issem, verb-ending, 65. n\ 
iste, 51 ; use, 53 ; compounded 

with -ce, 52. 
IT as sign of Impersonals, 95. n. 
it- as stem-ending, 19 (45. b). 
Italian dialects, Appendix, 303. 
itaque, accent. 8 { 19. c) ; compared 

with ergo, 106. e ; position, 260. 

b ; accent, 8. c. 
iter, stem, 25 (60. c) ; 34. n. 
Iterative verbs, 114 (167. b). 
ium, noun-ending, 1 10. /. 
ium, gen. plur. in 3d declension, 

23 ; of adjectives, 40, 42. 
ius, gen. sing, ending, ^ ( 8 3) i 

quantity, 39. n y 264. a. 1 

J (semi-vowel = y), 3. 

jam, 100. 

jecur, inflection, 25 ; stem 34. n. 

jubeo, construction of 157. a, 192. 

b, 239. 2, 241. a. 
jungo, with abl. or dat. 173. a, R. 
Juppiter, stem and inflection, 25. 
jusjurandum, 36. 
jussu (def.) 32. b. 
juvenis, how compared, 45. b. 
juvo, with accus. 157. a, 

K supplanted by C, 3. 
Kalends, 294. a. 

Kindred forms, Latin and English, 
6 (see Appendix). 

Labial stems (3d decl.), 19; gen- 
der, 27 ; noun-forms, 29. c. 

laedo, comp. with noceo, 157. a, 

laetor with abl. 176. b. 

lampas, 26. 

lateo, with accus., 166. d. 

Latin language, origin and compar. 
forms ; earliest forms of ; lan- 
guages derived from : see Ap- 
pendix. 



latus, derivation, 91. n. 

libet impers., 96. d, N ; with dat., 
158. e. 

licet, imper., synopsis, 95 (145) ; 
96. d, N ; with dat. 158. e ; with 
pred. dat. 193. a; with subj., 
meaning although, 225. b. 

Limit, defin. of, 121. b. 

Lingual stems, 19 ; gender, 27 ; 
noun-forms, 29. d. 

Liquid stems (3d decl.), 20, 21 ; 
apparent, 21 (50); gender, 27; 
noun-form, 28. b. 

Litotes, 142. c. 

11, as stem-ending, 21 (48. e). 

Locative Ablative, 175 ; idiomatic 
use, 176. a. 

Locative forms, 13; 1st decl. 16; 
2d, 17 ; 3d, 25 ; 4th (domi), 31.**; 
5th, 33 ; as adverb, 98. d ; must 
be referred to by relative adverb, 
136./; in appos. with abl., 123. 
c ; compared with dat. 154, N. ; of 
names of Towns, etc., 178-181. 

loco without prepos. 179. f. 

Logaoedic Verse, 284. 

longius, without quam, 172. c. 

M final, elision of, 276. d. 

m (verb-ending), lost, 63. n z . 

magis, as sign of comparative, 44. 
d ; compounds of, with quam, 
183. N. 

macte, 167. c. 

magni, genitive of value, 148. c ; 
175. a. 

majestatis, with words of accus- 
ing, etc, 152. a. 

malo, inflection of, 90. 

Masculine adjectives (senex), 43. 

Material, adjectives denoting, 112. 
g ; gen. of, 147. e ; ablative of, 
170. c. 

maxime, as sign of superl. 44. d. 



320 



Index. 



May (potential), how expr., 60. n. 
Means, abl. of, 173. 
Measure, gen. of, 148. b. 
Measures in Prosody, 272-275. 
Measures of value, 296. 
medeor, medicor, with dat. or 

ace. 157. b. 
Meditative verbs, 114. c. 
medius (middle part of), 128(193). 
memini, infl. 93; imperat. form, 

190. e ; with pres- infin., 203. b. 
-met (enclitic), 51. 
Metathesis, 4. d; 73. N. 
Metre, see Verse. 
meus (voc. mi), 18, 37, 50. 
militiae (locat.), 179. d. 
mille, infl. and constr. of, 48. 
mini, as personal ending, 65. n 3 . 
minime, 142. e ; in answer ("no"), 

144. 
minoris (gen. of value), 175. 0, d. 
minus, with si, etc., equivalent to 

negative, 142.*; constr. without 

quam, 172. c. 
miror si, 245. r. 
mirum quam, 143. R ; 247. e. 
misceo, with abl. or dat. 173. a, R. 
misereor, with gen. 153. a. 
miseret, 96, with ace. and gen. 

153. h. 
Modern pronunciation of Latin, 7. 
Modern languages compared with 

Latin, Appendix. 
Modification of subject or predi- 
cate, 121. 
modo, dummodo (proviso), 226; 

with hortat. subj., 188. d. 
Monoptotes, 34. 
Months, gender of, 12. a; names 

of in ber, 39. ; divisions of, in 

Roman calendar, 294. a. 
Moods, 58, 59, 60 ; nature of 184 ; 

Syntax of, 185-194. 
Mora, 272. a. 



Motion, expressed with prepo- 
sitions, 155, b, 159. a, 169. b ; 
indicated by compounds, 164. d, 
when implied, 181. £-, h. 

Motive, with ob or propter, 171. b. 

Mountains, names of, gender, 12. 

Multiplication by distributives, 
49. c. 

Multiplicatives, 49. 

Mute stems (3d decl.), 19, 20; ap- 
parent, 20, 23. 

N as final letter of stem (leon-), 20. 
n in verb-root (frango), 72. c z ; 

73. b y n ; adulterinum, 2. n. 
nais, 26 (64). 
nam, namque, 106. d. 
Names of men and women, 36. 
natus, etc., with abl., 170. a. 
-ne (enclitic) in questions, 142, 

a-d ; in hicine, etc., 51. n; in 

exclamations 243. e. 
ne with hortat. subj. 187. b ; in 

prohibitions, 190. a; in final 

clauses, 228 ; — nedum, 229. R ; 

in consecutive clauses, with 

verbs of caution, etc., 241. e ; of 

fearing, 242. f; omitted after 

cave, id. R. 
nee enim, 106. d. 
Necessity, verbs of, 241 . c. 
necne, 143. 
nedum, 229. r. 
nefas, with supine, 213. 
Negation, perfect preferred in, 

198. d. 
Negative part. 99 (149. e) ; when 

doubled, id. ; Syntax of, 141 ; 

and with connective, id. b ; as 

expressing no, 144. 
nego better than dico . . . non, 

142 (209. b). 
nemo, use of, 137.^ 
neque, and not ', 105. 






Index. 



321 



nequeo, 95. g 

ne . . quidem, 100. e. 

nescio an, 143. R. 

nescio quis, 143. R. 

Neuter nouns, like cases in, 14. b. 

Neuter passives, 89. 

Neuter verbs, with agent (perire 

ab), 171. 
Neutral passives, 90. b. 
ni, nisi, 215. a. 
nimirum quam, 247. e. 
ningit, 96. a. 
nisi and si non, 226. 0. 
nisi si, nisi vero, 226. a, b. 
nix (stem and infl.), 19, n. 3 
noli, 190. a. 
nolo, 90 (138). 
Nomen, 36. a. 

nomen est, with pred. dat. 160. b, c. 
Nominative, 13 (31. a) ; formation 

from stem, 14, 19 ; in adjectives, 

38; Syntax: as subject, 119; 

pred. after esse, 120. b, 124; as 

subj. of verb, 138 ; used for voc, 

167. a, with opus as pred. 169. R. 
non, in answers, 144. 
non dubito quin, 244. R. 
nonne, 142 (210. e). 
non nemo, non nullus, nullus 

non, 99. (150). 
non quia, non quod, non quin, 

non quo, 253. r. 
noster, for poss. gen. 50. 
nostri, as obj. gen. 51. 
nostrum, as part. gen. 50. 
Nouns, defined, 10 (25. a) ; infl. 

of, 14-36 ; used as adjectives, 43 ; 

rule of agreement, 124. 
ns as adjective ending, 40. n. 
num, force of, 142 (210. c) ; in in- 

dir. questions, 143. R. 
Number, 13 ; rule of, with apposi- 

tive, 123. a, adjective, 124; 

verb. 138. b. 



Numerals, 46-49. 
nunc, 100. b. 

O for u after u or v, 3 (7) ; in 2d 
decl. 17. n. 

O si, with subj. of wish, 189. b. 

o in amo = a and m, 63. n* 

ob or propter, to represent cause, 
171. b. 

Object defined, 120; of active 
verb becomes subject of pas- 
sive, id. ; various object-cases, 
121; direct (ace.) 164; indirect 
(dat), 154. 

Oblique Cases, 13, 145. 

obvius with dat.. 159 b. 

odi, 93. 

Omission of consonant, 4 b. [150.*. 

omnes nos (instead of nostrum), 

on, Greek ending, infl. 18 (43). 

on, gen. pi. 19 (43*). 

on-, stem-ending, 20 (48. a). 

Open Syllables, 6. d. 

opera with gen. of agent, 171. 

opinione (celerius opinione) i 172 b. 

oportebat (virtual present), 224 r. 

oportet, 96. d ; with ace, 165. e. 

Optative, derivation and compari- 
son with subjunctive, 184. 

Optative subjunctive (of wish), 188. 

opus and usus, with abl., 169 ; 
opus as pred., id. ; with perf. 
part. 207. b ; with supine, 213. 

Oratio Obliqua (see Indirect Dis- 
course). 

Order of words, 258-262. 

Ordinal Numbers, 46. n. 2 

Orpheus, inflection of, 18. 

Orthography, variations in, 5. c. 

os for us in nom. sing, of 2d decl., 
17 (38. N.) ; as Greek-ending, 18. 

os, ossis, infl. of, 25. 

Oscan forms compared with Latin, 
Appendix, 303. 



322 



Index. 



ossua(def-), 31. #•* 

-osus, adjective ending, 112. k. 

ovat, etc., 94. e. 

P euphonic after m (sumpsi), 4. c. 

paenitet, 96 (146. b) ; constr. of, 
153. £. 

palam, 182. b. 

Palatal consonants, 2 ; stems* (3d 
decl.), 19; gender, 27; noun- 
forms, 30. 

Parallel verb-forms, 87. 

Parataxis, ny.n. 

paratus with infin. 193. b. 

Parisyllabic nouns of 3d decl. 22 ; 
adjectives, 39. 

parte (loc), without prepos. 179./. 

Participial clause implying condi- 
tion, 222. a. 

Participles defined 11 ; included 
in verb-forms, 58, 61 ; pert, ac- 
tive and pres. passive, how 
represented, 61 N. ; as nouns 
61. f ; as adjectives with geni- 
tive, 151. b ; in abl. abs., 176. b; 
Syntax, 204-209; tense, 204; 
deponent, 205, b, d ; pres. pass, 
and perf. act. how supplied, 205. 
b y d ; as adjectives, 205 ; as pre- 
dicate, 206 ; of description, id. ; 
with opus, 207. b; perf. with 
habeo, etc., id. c ; pres. with 
facio, etc., id. e; future, id.; 
with fui, 208. c, 221. d ; gerund- 
ive, id. ; modern, derived from 
gerund, 212. n ; future, in in- 
dir. questions, 246. a. 

Particles, defined, 1 1 ; forms and 
classif., 97 ; interrogative and 
negative, 99; in compounds, 
116; negative, 99. e, 141; Syn- 
tax of, 140-142 ; conditional, 
215. a; interrogative, 99. d ; use 
of, 142 (a-d). 



Partitive Numerals, 49 (97. c). 

Partitive with gen., 148. 

Parts of Speech defined, 10, 11. 

parum, 46 (93. e). 

Passive voice, forms wanting in, 

59 ; middle or reflexive mean- 
ing, id. N. ; origin, 65. n» 66. 
Patronymics (-ades, -ides, &c), 

in. b. 
Peculiar forms of 3d decl., 25. 
pelagus, neuter, 17. b ; pi. pelage, 

id. n. 1 
Penalty, gen. of, 152. 0: abl. of, 

id. b. 
penes, following noun, 183. N. 
Penult, 8 (19. D.) ; quantity, 267. 
per (per vim), 171. b : in compos. 

(very), 46. d, 116. c' for agent 

or volunt. instrum., 171. (246. b). 
perendie (loc), 33. 
Perfect tense, how distinguished 

in meaning from imperfect, 63. 

b, c, n 1 : personal endings, 64. 

a : origin of i and s, 65. n, 2 72. 

n* : Stem, how formed, y^; 

of subjunctive in sequence of 

tenses, 201. b, e. 
Period, 261. 
Periphrastic conjugations, 61. n, 

yy ; forms, 96 ; with sum or fui, 

206. R. 

Permission, verbs of, 241. c. 

Personal endings, 6^ ; meaning, «. 2 

Persons of verbs, 58. 

pertaesum est, 153. b. 

peto with ab, 166. R. 

ph only in Greek words, 5 (12. b) ; 

sound of, 7. N. 
Phalaecian Verse, 286. II. 
Pherecratic Verse, 286 4. 
Phonetic changes, 3 (9) ; method 

of pronunciation, 7. 
Phorcys, 25 (63. a). 
Phrase, 121 (179). 



Index. 



323 



Phrases, neuter, 13. c ; adverbial, 
121 ; limited by gen. 147. d. 

piget, constr. of, 153= b. 

Place, relations of, require preposi- 
tion, 155. b ; 159 (229. a) ; loca- 
tive uses, 178-181. 

Plants, names of, gender, 12. 

Plautus, use of quom with indie, 
236 R. ; of atrior, 44. N. ; proso- 
dial forms, 283, 292. 

plebes, inflection, ^2. n! 1 ; plebi 
(gen), id. a. 

-plex, numeral adjectives, 49. 

pluit (impers.), 96. a'- used per- 
sonally, id. 

Pluperfect, 199. 

Plural of proper names, &c, ^ ; 
plur. accus. as adverb, 98. £ : of 
neuter adjectives, 127. b. 

Plur alia tantum, 33 (76). 

pluris, gen. of value, 148. c, 175. 
a, d. 

plus, inflection, 41 ; use, 42 ; with- 
out quam, 172. c. 

poenitet, see paenitet. 

poema, infl. 20. 

pono with abl., 181. a. 

Position in Prosody, 7. N., 264; 
it does not affect a final vowel, 
265. R. 

posse, as fut. infin. 204./. 

Possessives in appos. with gen. 
124. d: Syntax of, 132 ; for obj. 
genitive, 150. a. 

possum, inflection of, 70. 

post with quam, 183. n. 

postquam, in temporal clause, 235. 

postridie, with gen. 148. g' with 
accus. 182. a : with quam, 

183. N. 

postulo ab, 166. R. 

Potential mood, how expressed in 

Latin, 60, n. 
Potential subjunctive, 223. a. 



potior, with gen., 154. a : with 
abl., 174. 

prae, in composition (very), 46. d'> 
with quam, 183. N. 

Prcenomen, 36 ; abbreviations, id. 

Predicate, 118 ; defined, 119 ; after 
esse, 120; gender of adj., 125. 
a, b: agreement in, 124: in rel. 
clause, 134: after infin. 193. b ; 
after licet, id. a. 

Prepositions, assimil. of, 4. f* : 
defined, 11 ; specialized use, 
100 ; how distinguished from 
Adverbs, id. n : list, 101 ; idio- 
matic uses, 101-103 ; how con- 
nected with case-constructions, 
145, 181 ; with names of Places, 
181./: as adverbs, 183. d. 

Present stem, how formed from 
root, 72. 

Present Tense, 195 ; of infin. for 
past, 203. b. 

Preteritive verb, 93 N ; 198. R. 

Price, abl. or gen. 175. 

pridie with gen. 148. g; with ace. 
182. a ; with quam, 183. n. 

Primary Suffixes, 107. 

Primary Tenses, 200. 

primo and primum, 100. d. 

Principal parts of verb, 71. 

prius quam, 183. n., 237. 

pro, 163. R. 2 

procul with abl., 182. b. 

Prohibitions, 187. b ; 190. a. 

Promising, etc., verbs of, 240./". 

Pronominal Roots, 107. N. ; as 
Primary Suffixes, id. 

Pronouns, defined and classified, 
11 ; inflection of, 50-56, per- 
sonal and reflexive, 50 ; demon- 
strative, 51 ; relative, etc., 54 ; 
Syntax, 128-138 ; personal, 129; 
demonstrative, id. ; idem, ipse, 
id ; reflexive, 131 ; possessive, 



324 



Index, 



132 ; relative, 133-136 ; indefin- 
ite, 136-138; omitted, 139. a, 262.^ 

Pronunciation, modes of, 6, 7. 

propior, 44 (91) ; with ace. 162. e. 

Proper Names, 36; in plural, 33. 

Proportional Numerals, 49. 

Prosody, 263-293 : early peculiar- 
ities, 292. 

prosum, inflection of, 70. 

Protasis, 214, 215 (see Conditions) ; 
loose use of tenses in English, 
217. R. 

Protraction of long syllable, 272. c. 

Proviso, with modo, etc , 188. d ; 
226; as, result-clause, 231. b, 
232. d. 

-pte, -pse (enclitic), 51./, c. 

pudet (impers.), constr. 153. b. 

pugnatur (impers.), synopsis, 95. 

Punishment, abl. of, 152. b. 

Pure syllable, 6. c. 

Purpose, infin. of, 193 ; clause of, 
228 ; ways of expressing, 229. 

Quae res (or id quod), 135. e. 

quaeso, 94. d. 

Quality, adjectives of, 112. /; gen. 
of, 148 ; abl. of, 174. 

quam, with superl., 46. b ; with 
comparatives, 172.0 ; with ante, 
post, 183 (262) ; followed by 
result-clause, 243. b; in indirect 
discourse, 249. r; with inf., 250. R. 

quamlibet (concessive), 225. 

quam ob causam, 168. 

quam qui with subj. 232. c. 

quamquam, 55. b> 106. 2, 225. 

quam ut, 232. c. 

quam vis, 106. i, 225. a, g. 

quando (interrog.), 106. g ; indef. 
id. ; causal (since), 233 ; temporal 
(when), 234. 

quanti, gen. of value, 175. d. 

Quantity, general rules of, 8, 264 ; 



of final vowels, 15, 265; other 
final syllables, 266; of penults, 
267. 

quantus, 56. g. 

quasi, with primary tenses, 224. r. 

-que (enclitic), forming universals, 
56. e ; as conjunction, 105. a. 

queo (def.) 95.^. 

ques (nom. plur), 54 (104. d). 

Questions, 142-144 ; Indirect, 143. 
R. ; alternative, id.; — and an- 
swer, 144 ; Indirect, 245 ; in 
indirect discourse, 250. 

qui (relative), infl. 54. 

qui (adverbial), 54 (104. c). 

quia, 106./, 233, 245. by 252. d. 

quidam, 136 ; with ex, 149. c. 

quidem, 100. e. 

quin, in result-clause (= qui-non), 
231. d ; with verbs of hindering, 
244. g; non quin (non dubito), 

244. R. quin? 190./. 
Quinary or hemiolic measures, 2y^- 
quippe, 233. e; quippe cum, 237 ; 

quippe qui, 233. e. 
quis infl., 54 ; dist. from qui in use, 

a; compounds (aliquis, etc.), 5 V 

d; 56. 
quis (dat. or abl. plur.), 54. d. 
quisquam, 55. c ; 56. k. 
quisque, 56, with superl. 46 ; in 

the dependent clause, 137. e; 

with plural verb, id. d ; 139. R. 
quisquis, 55. 
quo, in final clauses, 228, 230. a ; 

non quo, 253. R. 
quo . . . eo, 57. c; 174 (250. R). 
quoad (purpose, etc.), 238. 
quod (conj.), 106./", 233; Clause 

with, 245 ; as accus. of specif. 

245. a ; in intermediate clauses, 
252. d ; proviso, 232. d. 

quod si, 105. b. 
,quom, 106. g. 



Index. 



325 



quominus, 228. b ; with verbs of 
caution and hindrance, 231.^; 
242. e. 

quoniam, 106./, 233. 

quoque, 99 (151. a). 

quot, 57. a. 

Quotation, forms of, 248. 

quotus quisque, 56. e. 

quum, see cum (conj.). 

R subst. for s between vowels, 
4. a ; double, in noun-stems, 
21. e. 

Radical syllables, quantity of, 107. 

ratus (as pres. part.), 205. b. 

reapse, 51. c. 

Reciprocal [each other), how ex- 
pressed, 51. d, 132./. 

recordor, with ace. 152. r. 

Reduplication, 72. c, 73. c ; in perf. 
of 3d conj. 73. c; lost in fidi, 
etc., id. ; in compounds, 85. n ; 
of roots, 74. n h ; rule of quan- 
tity, 268. c. 

refert with gen. or possessive, 153. 

Reflexive Pronouns, 50, 53. n; 
Syntax of, 131 (196). 

Reflexive verbs (deponent or pas- 
sive), 65. n ; use of passive, 59. 
N -, 1 with object-acc. 166. N. 

Regular Verb, 70-90. 

Relative Adverb = Pronoun with 
Prepos. 140. a; as connective, 
136. e ; used to refer to Locative, 
id./. 

Relative Clauses, 122. c, 136. h 
as a Condition, 222. a ; Syntax, 
227-238 ; conditional, 227 ; pur- 
pose, 228 ; characteristic and re- 
sult, 230 ; as cause or hindrance, 
233 ; causal, 233 ; temporal, 234. 

Relative Pronouns, inflection, 54 ; 
compounds of, 55 ; as connec- 
tives, 122. f; Syntax, 133 ; rule 



of agreement, 134; use of the 
antecedent, id. (200); special 
uses, 135. 

Relative Time, 199, 234. n. 

-rem, verb-ending, 65. n. 1 

repetundarum, 152. a. 

Repeated action as a general con- 
dition, 221. b. 

Resolution of syllables in Prosody, 

275- 
Resolving, verbs of, 241. d. 

respublica, 36 (79. d). 

Restriction in subj. clause, 232. 

Result, clause of, 230-233, 242. 

Rhythm, 272. 

Rivers, names of, gender, 12. 

ro-stems, 2d decl., 16. N. ; of ad- 
jectives, 38. 

rogo, constr. of, 166. R. 

Roman Writers. 306. 

Romance (or Romanic) languages, 
comparative forms, 304. 

Root, defined, 9, 107 ; of Verb, 64 ; 
consciousness of, lost in Latin, 
113. n. d used as word, 117. 

rr- as stem-ending, 21. e. 

ruri, 179. d. 

rus, constr. of, 178. 

S elision of, 3 (8) ; subst. for d or 
t, 4. a; as sign of Nominative, 
14. n 2 (32. b), 40. n. 

s suppressed in perfects, 75. b. 

s as stem-ending, 20. «, 21. d y 25. 
d ; of 5th decl., 32, n l ; of com- 
paratives, 41. a, 

Salamis, 25. 

salve, 94./ 

Sanskrit forms, see notes, pp. 9, 
20, 38, 67, 72, 108, 113. 

Sapphic verse, 286. 7, 8. 

satago,with gen., 154 (223). 

satis, non satis, 46. e ; satis est 
with perf. infin., 203. e. 



326 



Index. 



Saturnian Verse, 292. d. 

Scanning, 276. b (274. N.). 

scin (scisne), 5. c. 

scito, scitote, imperat. form, 754 
190. e. 

-sco (inceptive), 114. a. 

Second Conjugation, formation, 74. 
b; inflection, 80; verbs of, 81. 
derivation, 114 (166 b). 

Second Declension, nouns, 16-19. 

Secondary Tenses, 200 ; of general 
truth, 201. d ; following histor. 
pres., 202. e. 

secundus, formation of, 46. n. 2 

secutus (as pres. part.), 205. b. 

sed, 105. b. 

Semi-deponents, 89. 

vSemi-vowels, 2. 

senati, senatuos (gen.), 31. 

senex, infl. of, 25 ; compared, 45. b. 

sens as part of esse, 67, n. 

Sentence, formation, 118; classifi- 
cation, 119; simple and com- 
pound, 122. 

Separation : dat. after adimo, &c, 
159; abl. of, 168. 

Sequence of Tenses, 200. 

sera nocte, 128. n. 

sestertium, sestertius, 36, 296. 

seu (see sive), 226. c. 

si, perfect ending, 65, n. 1 

si, 214; whether, 247./; si non, 
226; miror si, 245. r. 

siem, 67. 

Significant endings, 109. 

Signs of quantity, 8 ; of Accent 
(19. N.). 

-sim, old form of perf. subj. 75 e.' 3 

silentio (without prepos.), 173. R. 

similis, compar. of 43. b; with 
gen. 151 d ; with dat. 162. R. 

Simois, infl., 26. 

simul with abl., 182. b ; simul at- 
que (ac), 235. 



Singularia tantum^ 23 (?S)- 

sis (for si vis), 5 (13. c). 

sive, sive, 226. c. 

-so in fut. perfect, 75. e. s 

sodes (si audes), 5 (13. c), 90. a. 

soleo, 89. 

solitus (as pres, part.), 205. b. 

solus, infl., ^ ; with relat. clause, 
232. b. 

Space, accus. of, 178. 

Special verb-forms, 75. 

Specification, accus. of, 166. c ; 

. abl. of, 175. 

Spelling, variations of, 5. 

Stanza or Strophe 277 (361). 

Stem, defined, 9; how formed 
from the Root, 10, 107 ; in ro- 
of 2d decl., 16. N. ; in s of 3d 
decl., 20. n ; in tu- of 4th decl., 
31 (71); of Verb, origin, 64; 
present, perfect, and supine, 72, 
73 ; endings, 65-67. 

Stem-buiiding, 10. N. 

sub in compounds, 46. <?, 116. 

Subject, 118; definition, 119 
forms of, id. ; indefinite, omitted, 
139; accus. in indir. disc. 249. # 

Subjunctiye Mood, tenses want 
ing in, 59 ; how translated, 60, 
68. n ; classification of uses, 
186, 187 ; hortatory, 187 ; opta 
tive, 188 ; dubitative, 189 
tenses of, 199-202 ; potential 
223. a ; of modesty, id. b ; rela 
tive time, 199 ("284), 234. 

Subordinate Clauses, 122 b, 227- 
238 ; in indir. discourse, 249, 252. 

Subordinate conjunctions, 103. b, 
104 (155. d-h). 

Substantive Clauses defined 
and classified, 238 ; infinitive, 
239 ; of purpose, 241 ; of re- 
sult, 242 ; with quod, 245 ; 
indirect question, 245. 



Index. 



327 



Substantive verb (esse), 120. 

subter, 182. d. 

suetus with infin., 193. b. 

Suffixes, primary, 107 ; significant, 
109. 

sum, inflection of, 68. 

summus, {top of), 128 (193). 

sunt qui, 232. a. 

super, 181. c. 

Superlative suffix, 43, n ; in rimus, 
limus, 43 ; with maxime, 44 ; 
of eminence, 46. b ; takes gen- 
der of partitive, 125. e. 

Supine, noun of 4th decl., 32 ; as 
verb-form, 58 ; meaning and 
use, 62. b ; Stem, 70. n 2 ; how 
formed, 73 ; allied with forms 
in tor, 109. n 2 ; uses of, 212, 

213- 

sus, infl. (subus), 25. 

Swearing, verbs of, 240. f. 

Syllables, rules for division of, 6 ; 
pure, open, &c, 6 (14. c, d). 

Synalcepha, 276. R. 

Synesis, 123 (182), 125. d, 202. h. 

Synopsis of tenses, 75 ; of imper- 
sonal verbs, 95 (145); of con- 
structions, 254, 255. 

Syntax, 117-257; historical de- 
velopment of, 117. 

T for d (set, aput), 3 (8). 

t final, words in, 63. n.* 

taedet, constr. of, 153. b. 

tamen (position), 106. k ; as correl- 
ative, id. i. 

tamquam, with primary tenses, 
224. R. 

tanti (gen. of value), 175. a. 

tantum, with hortat. subj. 188. d ; 
tantum abest ut . . . ut, 243. d. 

-tas, tia, noun-endings, no. e. 

tat-, as stem-ending, 23 (54 s ). 

Teaching, verbs of (2 ace), 165. c. 



Temporal numerals, 49 ; particles, 
99; clause, 122. c, 234. 

Tendency, adjectives denoting, 
112. /. 

Tenses, 58, 62 ; of the passive, 59 ; 
of two classes, meaning and use, 
62 ; of the subjunctive, 63. d ; 
endings, 66, 67 ; formation of, 
73, 74 ; Syntax, 194-204 ; clas- 
sification, 194 ; present, 195; im- 
perfect, 196; future, 197; per- 
fect, 198; epistolary, 199; of 
subjunctive, id ; sequence of, 
200; of Infinitive, 202. 

tenus, 182. e. 

-ter (in alter, &c.)., 38. n ; as adjec- 
tive-ending, 39. a ; adverb-end- 
ing, 40. d, 97. b. 

Terminations of inflection, 9; of 
nouns, 15. 

terra marique, 179. d. 

Tetrameter Iambic, 282. 

The as correlative, 57. c. 

Thesis ad Arsis, 275 (358). 

Third conjugation, verbs of, forma- 
tion, 72. b ; 74. c ; inflection, 82 ; 
verbs in io 83 ; List of verbs, 
with principal parts, 84, 85 ; de- 
rivation, 113, 114 (166. c). 

Third Declension, nouns of, 19-30 ; 
mute-stems, 19 ; liquid-stems, 
20; vowel-stems, 21 ; case-forms, 
23 ; peculiar, 24 ; Greek, 25 ; 
rules of gender, 26; forms of 
inflection, 28-30. 

Though, see Although. 

Thought considered as result, 

243- /• 
Threatening, verbs of, 240. f. 
tigris, infl., 25. b. 
Time and Place, constructions of, 

177-181. 
Time, absolute and relative, 234; 

when, 175; how long (ace.) 177. 



328 



Index. 



-tis, tura, tus (tutis), noun-end- 
ings, no. b. 

TOO . . TO, 231. R. ; 232. C. 

-tor, -trix, nouns of agency, 109. 

« 2 ; as adjectives, 43. c, 126. d. 
totus, nouns with, in abl. without 

preposition, 179.^ 
Towns, names of, gender, 12 (29. 

b) ; in us, fern. 17. a; in e, neut., 

24. d; construction of, without 

prepositions, 178. 
tr- as stem-ending, 21 (48. c). 
trans, comp. of, with ace, 164. d. 
Transitive Verbs, 120 (177). 
Transposition of consonants, 4. d, 

73- * 

tres, infl. 48. 

tri-, as stem-ending of nouns, 22. 

b ; of adjectives, 39. a. 
Trimeter, Iambic, 280. 
Triptotes, 34. 
Trochaic verse, 283. 
-tudo, -tus, noun-endings, no. e. 
tuli (tetuli), derivation, 91. n. 
turn, tunc, 100 (151. ^) ; correl. 

with cum, 106. k. 

U (v) as semi-vowel, 2, not to fol- 
low u or v, 3. 

u-stems, of nouns, 19, 24. a, b; 
25 (61); of verbs, 72. d, 114. 

ubi in temporal clauses, 234, 235. 

-ubus, case-ending in 4th decl. 31. 

ullus, infl., 38; use, 137. b. 

um for arum, 16; for orum, 
18. e. 

Umbrian forms compared with 
Latin, 303. 

Undertaking, verbs of, with ger- 
undive, 209. d. 

unus, infl., 39 ; in plural, 48, 49. 

unus qui, with subjunctive, 232. b. 

uo, verbs in. 114. 

-urio (desiderative), 115. 



-urus, fut. participle, 61. b, 207 ; 
with fui, 208. c, 221 ; in indir. 
questions, 246. a. 

usque with ace. 182. a. 

usus (need), with abl., 169. e. 

ut, as interrogative, 143. e, r. ; as 
concessive, 225. a ; as final (pur- 
pose), 228 ; of result, 230 ; ut 
ne r 231.0; with subst. clauses, 
241, 242 ; omission after cer- 
tain verbs, 242. R. ; in exclama- 
tions, 243. c. 

ut, when, 234, 235; as interrog., 
143. R. ; suppose, even if, ic6. i. 

ut, utpote, quippe, with relative 
clause, 233. e; with cum, 236. 

uter, infl., 39. 

uterque, with genitive of nouns 
and pronouns, 149. d. 

uti, utinam, with subj. of wish, 
189. b. 

utor, etc., with ablative, 174 (249) ; 
as transitive, id. b. 

utrum . . . an, 143, 144. 

V (u), 2 (4); 3 (7); in tenuis, 

7. N. ; syncopated in perfect, 

75 (128.0). 
valde, 46. d. 
Value, genitive, of, 148. c, 175. a; 

measures of, 296. 
vapulo, 90. b. 
Variable nouns, 34. 
Varieties of spelling, 5 (12). 
vas, 25. d. 
-ve, vel, 106. c. 
velim, vellem, 189. c. 
veluti, velutsi, 224 (312). 
veneo (venum eo), 90. b. 
Verb as complete sent., 120 (175). 
Verbs, defined, n ; see chap. vi. 

(58-96); Structure, 58-64; 

Forms, 64-67 ; Regular, 70-90 ; 

Deponent, 88 ; Semi-deponent, 



Index. 



329 



89; Irregular, 72. e, 90; Defec- 
tive, 93 ; Impersonal, 95 ; de- 
rivation of, 113; derivative j 
114; rule of Agreement, 138; 
omission of, 139; Syntax, 184. 

Verba sentiendi et declarandi^ 192, 
239; passive use, id. a. 

Verbals in ax, 112. /; with gen- 
itive, 151. b. 

veritus, as present part. 205. b. 

vero, in answers, 144. a. 

Verse, 276 ; forms of, 277-292. 

verum or vero, 105. b; 106. k. 

vescor, with abl., 174. 

vesperi (loc), 18 (41. b). 

veto, with ace. and infin., 192. b, 
239. 2, 241. a. 

vetus, infl., 41 ; comparison, 43. a, 

-vi in perfect, 65. n. 1 

vicem (adverbial), 166. b. 

videor with dat, 161. c. 

vin (visnej, 5 (13. e). 

vis, infl., 25 (61). 

Vocative, 13 (31. e), 14. n % ; like 
nom. except in 2d decl., 14 (33. 
a) ; in i of nouns in ius, 18 (40. 
c) ; Syntax, 167. 



Voices, 59. 

volo, infl., 90; with perfect part- 
iciple, 207. d. 

voti (damnatus), 152. a. 

Vowels, 1. 

Vowel-changes, 3. 

Vowel-increase, 3 (10. a). 

Vowel-roots, 74. n, 1 n. z 

Vowel-scale, 1 (1. n.). 

Vowel-stems (3d decl.), 21-24; 
gender, 27; noun-forms, 28. a; 
of verbs, 113. n£ 

W, not in Latin alphabet, 1. N. 
Way by which (abl.), 179 g. 
Weight, measures of, 297. 
Wish, expression of, 188 ; as a 

condition, 222. b. 
Wishing, verbs of, 241. b. 
without (with part.), 206 (292. r). 
Women, names of, 36. 
Words, Formation of, 107- 116. 

Y, of Greek origin, 1. N. 
YA, verb-root, 64. n, 113. «. 3 
ya (primary suffix), 108. 
Year, date of, 294 ; months, 295. 



AUTHORS AND WORKS CITED. 



Caesar : Bell. Civ. de Finibus. 

Bell. Gall. pro Flacco. 

Bell. Afric. Lcelius {de Amicit.) 

Cicero : Academica. de Legibus. 



pro Archia. 
ad Atticum. 
Brutus. 
in Catilinam. 
pro Cluentio. 
Cato Major. 
De hiventione. 
pro Deiotaro. 
De Oratore. 
De Divinatione. 
Div. iu Ccecil. 
ad Familiares. 
de Fato. 



Leg. Agraria. 
pro Ligario. 
pro lege Manilla, 
pro Marcello. 
pro Murena. 
de Nat. Deorum. 
de Officiis. 
Orator. 
Paradoxa. 
Philippics, 
pro Plancio. 
in Pisonem. 
ad Q.Fratrem. 



pro Rabirio. 

de Republica. 
, pro Rose. Amer. 

Rull. {Leg. Agr. 

pro Sestio. 

Topic a. 

Titsc. Qucest. 

in Verrem. 
Q. Curtius. 
Horace. 
Juvenal. 
Livy. 
Lucretius. 
Nepos. 
Ovid : Metam. 

Tristia. 
Persius. 



Plautus : 

Amphitruo. 

Asitiaria. 
1 . Captivi. 

Trinummus. 
Pliny. 
Sallust : Catili?ia. 

Juguriha. 
Seneca : Epist. 
Tacitus : Agricola. 

Annates. 

Historic. 
Terence : Andria* 

Heaut. 
Virgil : ALneid* 

Eclogce. 

Georgica. 



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